Tools Of Research Final Exam

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virus

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An infective agent that typically consists of a nucleic acid molecule in a protein coat, is too small to be seen by light microscopy,...

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capsid

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The protein coat or shell of a virus particle, surrounding the nucleic acid or nucleoprotein core.

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bacteriophage

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A virus that parasitizes a bacterium by infecting it and reproducing inside it.

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parasite

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An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at the host's expense.

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lytic cycle

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The lytic is the viral reproductive cycle in which a virus takes over all metabolic activities of a cell; replicates many times and destroy its host cell.

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lysogenic cycle

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In a lysogenic cycle, viral nucleid acid becomes part of the host cell chromosome and it's replicated with it. Eventually the virus enters a lytic cycle and kills the host cell.

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prophage

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The genetic material of a bacteriophage, incorporated into the genome of a bacterium and able to produce phages if specifically activated.

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retrovirus

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A retrovirus is an RNA virus that replicates in a host cell through the process of reverse transcription. First it uses its own reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA from its RNA genome, reverse of the usual pattern, thus retro (backwards). This new DNA is then incorporated into the host's genome by an integrase enzyme. The cell then treats the viral DNA as part of its own instructions, making the proteins required to assemble new copies of the virus.

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viroid

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An infectious entity affecting plants, smaller than a virus and consisting only of nucleic acid without a protein coat.

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prion

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A microscopic protein particle similar to a virus but lacking nucleic acid, thought to be the infectious agent responsible for scrapie and certain other degenerative diseases of the nervous system

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prokaryote

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A microscopic single-celled organism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor other specialized organelles

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what are the domains

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eukarya, archae, and bacteria

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what are the bacterial kindoms

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archaebacteria, eubacteria

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difference between archaebacteria and eubacteria

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eubacteria have peptidoglycan in their cell walls, while archaebacteria do not

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methanogen

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archae that produces methane as a biproduct of their metabolic processes

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extreme halophile

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archae that seeks extremely salty environments

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thermoacidophile

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archae that thrives on acidic, sulfur rich, high temperature environments

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chemosynthesizer

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archae that get energy from chemicals, instead of the sun's light rays, a process similar to photosynthesis, but yeah, with chemicals and not with the sun

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gram-positive bacteria

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has a large amount of peptidoglycan in cell walls, and thus retains more of the purple gram fluid, leading to a purple color

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gram-negative bacteria

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has a smaller amount of peptidoglycan in cell walls (instead having a thicker lipid layer), and thus retains less of the purple gram fluid, leading to a pink color

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cyanobacteria

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blue-green algae (they are actually archaebacteria, not algae)

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flagella

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A slender threadlike structure, esp. a microscopic whiplike appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria, spermatozoa, etc., to swim.

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chemoautotroph

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chemoautotrophs are chemosynthesizers that support communities at deep-sea vents

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photoheterotroph

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photosynthesizing, but they can survive on other organisms if they need to

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binary fission

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asexual reproduction in which the cell divides in half

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conjugation

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the temporary union of two bacteria or unicellular organisms for the exchange of genetic material

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pilus

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hair-like structure that stabilizes mating bacteria during conjugation

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transformation

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bacterial transformation the exchange of genetic material between strains of bacteria by the transfer of a fragment of naked DNA from a donor cell to a recipient cell, followed by recombination in the recipient chromosome

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transduction

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the process of transferring genetic material from one cell to another by a plasmid or bacteriophage

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protozoan

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animal-like protist

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sarcodinian

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protozoa that move and capture food by forming pseudopodia

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pseudopods

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a temporary projection of the cytoplasm of certain cells, such as phagocytes, or of certain unicellular organisms, especially amoebas, that serves in locomotion

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zooflagellate

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protozoans (animal-like protists) that utilize flagella for locomotion

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ciliate

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protozoans utilizing cilia for locomotion (movement)

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sporozoan

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* come back later *

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plankton

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algae or protozoa that are small and incapable of swimming against a current (include phytoplankton and zooplankton)

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malaria

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viral disease transmitted by a mosquito into the blood

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dinoflagellate

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type of protist with a flagellum * look up more *

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diatom

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a single-celled alga that has a cell wall of silica. Many kinds are planktonic

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multicellular algae

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rhodophyta are red (rhod and red)
chlorophyta are green (chlorophyll)
phaeophyta are brown (feo as in Spanish, is ugly)

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sessile

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adjective describing an animal that is unable to move

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motile

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adjective describing an animal that is able to move

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invertebrate

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animal lacking a backbone

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vertebrate

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animal that has a backbone, is a part of the phylum Chordata

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radial symmetry

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a point of symmetry, everything revolves around that; only a ventral and dorsal side

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dorsal

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back

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ventral

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belly

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bilateral symmetry

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a line of symmetry, everything reflects across the line; a ventral, dorsal, anterior, and posterior side

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anterior

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front

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poster

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back of the animal

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the first differentiated cells in a fetus are the

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endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm

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Ectoderm (the outside layer) later becomes

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Ectoderm: the central nervous system, the lens of the eye, cranial and sensory, the ganglia and nerves, pigment cells, head connective tissues, the epidermis, hair, and mammary glands.

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Mesoderm (the middle layer of tissue) later becomes

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Mesoderm: skeletal muscle, the skeleton, the dermis of skin, connective tissue, the urogenital system, the heart, blood (lymph cells), and the spleen.

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Endoderm (the inner layer of skin) later becomes

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Endoderm: the stomach, the colon, the liver, the pancreas, the urinary bladder, the lining of the urethra, the epithelial parts of trachea, the lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid, and the intestines.

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Protostome

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blastopore becomes mouth first, then anus forms

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Deuterostome

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blastopore becomes anus first, then mouth forms

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Blastula

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hollow sphere of cells, referred to as blastomeres, surrounding an inner fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoele formed during an early stage of embryonic development in animals (blastula first, earlier in the alphabet than gastrula)

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gastrula

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An embryo at the stage following the blastula, when it is a hollow cup-shaped structure having three layers of cells (remember, comes after bastula in the alphabet...)

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cephalization

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the concentration of sense organs, nervous control, etc., at the anterior end of the body, forming a head and brain

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hydrostatic skeleton

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a hydrostatic skeleton is a skeleton composed of fluid that is kept under pressure in a completely closed section of the body

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exoskeleton

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non-internal skeleton, a rigid external covering for the body in some invertebrate animals, esp. arthropods

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Porifera Body Plan

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-there are no true tissue layers or organ systems in a sponge, just mesophyll layer and an epidermis;
-sponges consist of a hollow body cavity with an opening at the top of the sponge that water circulates through

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Porifera Habitat

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marine (aquatic environment)

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Porifera Feeding

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-they are filter feeders, in which water circulates through the sponge's body and they then absorb nutrients from the water

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Specialized Cells in a Sponge

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-Collar cells (choancocytes): contain flagella that causes water to circulate throughout the sponge
-Spicules: spike-shaped structures made of calcium carbonate or silica and provides structure to the sponge - like a skeleton
-Amoebocytes (archaeocyte): cells that have the ability to move within the mesophyll layer and make spicules and digest the food particles the collar cells absorb from the water

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Platyhelminthes (Flatworm, Plat for Flat) Body Plan

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Simplest animal with 3 germ tissue layers and internal organ systems. Contains bilateral symmetry and simplest animal with cephalization. They are acoeomates since they lack a fluid-filled space between their tissue layers and the only body cavity they have is the digestive cavity.

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Platyhelminthes (Flatworm, Plat for Flat) Feeding

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Flatworms can be free-living or parasitic.
-Tubellarians are aquatic free-living flatworms that feed on dead organic matter or tiny aquatic animals. These flatworms have a single opening in which both food and waste pass through (manus, thank you Mihir). The most common turbellarian is the planarian.
-Flukes are parasitic flatwors that infect the internal organs of its host. They reproduce sexually and the eggs of some species clog the blood vessels of its host. In other species, the eggs are released into the intestine and then the embryos are passed out of the body through the feces.
-Tapeworms are parasitic flatworms taht have adapted to living life inside the intestine of its host. Tapeworms have a head called a scolex that contains a knob-shaped head with hooks and sucked with which they attach to the intestinal wall of the host. THey also contain proglottids which are segments of the tapeworm that contain male and female anatomy. The eggs in the proglottid are fertilized and then break off the worm and burst open releasing the eggs.

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Platyhelminthes (Flatworm, Plat for Flat) Reproduction

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Flatworms can reproduce sexually since they are hermaphrodites or asexually through fragmentation/binary fission.

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Platyhelminthes (Flatworm, Plat for Flat) Habitat

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They can be aquatic or terrestial (live on land)

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Platyhelminthes (Flatworm, Plat for Flat) Specialized Structures

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-Eyespots: cells that sense only light, not distinct shapes or images
-Ganglia: a simple group of nerve cells that control the nervous system

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Cnidaria Body Plan

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Simplest animal with radial symmetry and specialized tissues. They contain a hydrostatic skeleton that gives them internal support.

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Cnidaria Feeding

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Cnidarians have tentacles that contain cnidocytes, which are stinging cells that enable cnidaria to kill or paralize its prey. The cnidocytes contain nematocysts, which is a poison-filled, stinging structure that contains a thread and a barb. The barb attaches to the prey, and the thread stings the prey. After paralyzing the prey, the cnidarian pulls the prey through their mouth into a gastric cavity, a digestive chamber with one opening - food enters and waste leaves through the same opening. I swear, I'm going to remember "manus" and not "gastric cavity" on the quiz.... such is life.

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Cnidaria Habitat

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Marine

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Cnidaria Reproduction

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Cnidaria can reproduce sexually or asexually. Polyps reproduce asxeually through budding. Other cnidarians reproduce sexually through external fertilization in which the female releases eggs into the water and the male releases sperm into the water. The two meet in the water and form a zygote.

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Nematoda (Roundworms) Body Plan

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Worms that are unsegmented and have a digestive system with two openings - a mouth and anus. They are more advanced than flatworms since they have a fluid filled space (coelom) in their body cavity BUT this space is only partially lined with tissue so they are called pseudocoelomates. They have bilateral symmetry and contain a hydrostatic skeleton that gives them internal support.

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Nematoda (Roundworms) Feeding

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Roundworms can be free-living or parasitic. Many roundworms are human parasites, such as Ascaris, pinworms, hookworms, and Trichinella.
-Ascaris worms live in the intestines of its host and if left untested, it can block the intestines of hte host and cause malnutrition. The female Ascaris lays eggs in the intestine and the eggs leave the host through feces.
-Pinworms infect the intestines and cause anal itching when they lay eggs around the anus.
-Trichinella is a roundworm that lives and mates in the intestines of its host. The larvae of Trichinella travel through the blood stream and burrow into the organs and tissue. Humans can contract Trichinella by eating undercooked pork which was infected with the worm.
-C. elegans are a non-parasitic roundworm that feed on rotten vegetation and are used in genetic research

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Nematoda (Roundworms) Habitat

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Aquatic or terrestial

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Nematoda (Roundworms) Reproduction

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Roundworms reproduce sexually in which the male deposites sperm inside the female, who then lays the fertilized eggs.

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Annelida (Segmented Worms) Body Plan

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Segmented worms that contain a one-way digestive tract with a mouth and anus. THe segments are separated by septa, which are internal walls between each segment. THey are coelomates in which they have a tissue lined, fluid filled body cavity (coelom) and specialized organs are in the coelom. They have contain a hydrostatic skeleton which provides internal support and bilateral symmetry.

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Annelida (Segmented Worms) Feeding

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Annelids can be free-living or parasites.
-Earthworms feed on decaying vegetation and often ingest clay and sand along with the food. When the clay and sand passes through their digestive system and is expelled through the anus, it produces a casting which is good for the soil and plants.
-Leeches are external parasites that are found in freshwater. Using razor-sharp jaws or a muscular extension called a proboscis, the leech makes an incision into the host and then feeds of the host's blood.

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Annelida (Segmented Worms) Habitat

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Found in both terrestial and aquatic environments.

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Annelida (Segmented Worms) Reproduction

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Reproduce sexually and some annelids are hermaphrodites, in which they contain both male and female anatomy. They cannot fertilize themselves and must swap gametes with another annelid. A band of thickened segments called the clitellum secrete a mucous covering wihch the worms release their gametes into and allows for fertilization.

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Annelida (Segmented Worms) Specialized Structures

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-nephridia: tubes that the annelid uses to excrete liquid waste

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Mollusca - Class Gastropoda/Univalve - Body Plan

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Mollusks have a soft body and most mollusks have a shell - either external or interal. Gastropods are shell-less or single-shelled mollusks that move by using muscular foot located on the ventral side. The muscular foot produces slime that enables them glide more easily across their terrain. They have bilateral symmetry and are coelomates. Like all mollusks, they contain a mantle, which is the soft outer layer of their bodies that secretes the shell. They also contain a visceral mass, which is the internal organs of the mollusk.

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Mollusca - Class Gastropoda/Univalve - Feeding

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Gastropods can be herbivores, carnivores, filter feeders, scavengers, or parasites. They contain a radula, which is a tongue-like organ covered with hundreds of tiny teeth. Herbivorous gastropods protrude the radula from the mouth and scrape up algae or tear apart leaves. Carnivorous gastropods use the radula to drill through the shells of their prey and tear up the prey's soft tissue.

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Mollusca - Class Gastropoda/Univalve - Habitat

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Aquatic or terrestial

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Mollusca - Class Gastropoda/Univalve - Specialized Structures

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-Eye stalks: can sense light and some movement

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Mollusca - Class Gastropoda/Univalve - Examples

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snails, conchs, slugs, Gary

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Mollusca - Class Bivalvia - Body Plan

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Bivalves are organisms with two shells that are held together by one or two powerful muscles. The foot of the bivalve is used to burrow the bivalve into the sand. Bivalves are coelomates and do not have bilateral or radial symmetry.

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Mollusca - Class Bivalvia - Feeding

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They are filter feeders and they use their gills to obtain oxygen for breathing and to trap food particles from the water.

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Mollusca - Class Bivalvia - Habitat

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Only aquatic

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Mollusca - Class Bivalvia - Specialized Structures

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certain bivalves, such as oyster, have the ability to make pearls. Pearl formation begins when a foreign object, such as a grain of sand, lodges between the mantle and the shell. The mantle secretes shell-like material around the grain of sand and forms a pearl.

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Mollusca - Class Bivalvia - Examples

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clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops

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Mollusca - Class Cephalopoda - Body Plan

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Soft body mollusks in which the head is attached to a single foot and and the foot is divided into tentacles or arms. Some cephalopods have a shell (nautilus), some have an internal shell (squid), and some lack a shell altogether (octopus). To move from place to place, they use their siphon, which squirts water and creates movement. They are coelomates and have bilateral symmetry.

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Mollusca - Class Cephalopoda - Feeding

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Cephalopods have a highly developed nervous system that allows them to have quick responses and to be agile predators. Squid and octopus have a strong beak used to eat their prey.

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Mollusca - Class Cephalopoda - Habitat

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Aquatic

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Mollusca - Class Cephalopoda - Specialized Structures

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-Chromatophores: enable the squid to change its skin color to blend into the environment
-Ink Sacs: in squid and octopus, the ink is squeezed out of the ink sac and used as a smoke screen when the cephalopods are threatened by a predator
-Eyes: the most advanced eyes of the invertebrates and can detect color, movement, and shades of light and dark

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Mollusca - Class Cephalopoda - Examples

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squid, octopus, and nautilus

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Arthropoda - Class Crustacea - Body Plan

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Arthropods are segmented invertebrates with joined appendages and an exoskeleton. The appendages are structures that extend from the body wall such as legs and antennae. The exoskeleton is a hard outer covering made of chitin that is used for support and protection. The exoskeleton limits the size on an arthropod and it must shed its exoskelton every time it grows through a process known as molting. Crustaceans usually have two pairs of antennae, 2-3 body sections and chewing mouthparts called mandibles. The body of most crustaceans is divided into two sections: a cephalothorax (head and thorax fused together) and an abdomen. The front legs attached to the cephalothorax are typically claws, called chelipeds. To aid in swimming, aquatic crustaceans have swimmerets on their abdomen. They are coelomates with bilateral symmetry.

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Arthropoda - Class Crustacea - Feeding

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Typically crustaceans are scavengers but they can be herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores

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Arthropoda - Class Crustacea - Habitat

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Crustaceans are primarily aquatic but a few live on land. For example, the pill bug lives in damp areas under leaves and dead wood.

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Arthropoda - Class Crustacea - Examples

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Shrimp, crayfish, lobster, crab, barnacles, and pill bugs

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Arthropoda - Class Arachnida - Body Plan

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Arachnids contain two body sections (cephalothorax and abdomen) and have mouth parts called chelicerae, which contain fangs that are used to stab and paralyze prey. Most arachnids have eight legs and one pair of pedipalps, the first pair of appendages used to grab prey. In some arachnids, the abdomen is large and swollen in appearance. They are coelomates with bilateral symmetry.

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Arthropoda - Class Arachnida - Feeding

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Typically they are parasites or predators. Predators are spiders that do not have chewing mouth parts so they must liquefy their prey with digestive enzymes. They then suck the tissue into their stomach and finish the digestion process. Predators that are scorpions have claws that as their pedipalps and can chew their prey. The parasites (ticks and mites) dig into the host's tissue and suck out blood or plant fluids. The abdomen swells and becomes larger with the more blood the parasite sucks.

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Arthropoda - Class Arachnida - Habitat

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Terrestial

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Arthropoda - Class Arachnida - Specialized Organs

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-Spinnerets: organs that contain silk glands found at the end of the abdomen. Found only in spiders and used to spin webs.

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Arthropoda - Class Arachnida - Examples

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spiders, scorpions, ticks, dust mites, and chiggers

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Arthropoda - Class Insecta - Body Plan

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Insects have three body segments, compound eyes, and six legs. The three body parts are the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head contains the brain, antennae, and mouthsparts. The thorax contains the legs and wings and the abdomen contains the reproductive, respiratory, and excretory systems. They are coelomates with bilateral symmetry.

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Arthropoda - Class Insecta - Feeding

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Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and scavengers. They have specialized mouthparts designed for specific functions such as ants have mandibles to saw and grind food, butterflies have a proboscis to suck up nectar and flies have a sponge-like mouth to lap up food.

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Arthropoda - Class Insecta - Habitat

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Can be aquatic or terrestial

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Arthropda - Class Insecta - Special Abilities

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Many insects go through a metamorphosis, or a series of changes during which the larvae becomes an adult. There are two types of metamorphosis: complete and incomplete. In incomplete metamorphosis, the larvae looks like a smaller version of the adult and has in-between stage of larvae and adult known as a nymph. In complete metamorphosis, the larvae looks completely different than the adult. The larvae goes through a pupal stage, in which the larvae tissue breaks down and the adult tissue develops.

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Arthropoda - Class Insecta - Examples

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bugs, flies, bees, termites, and grasshoppers

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Echinodermatea Body Plan

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Echinoderms are spiny-skinned coelomates with an internal skeleton and radial symmetry. Echinoderms move by using a water vascular system, which is a network of water-filled tubes. Echinoderms also contain tube feet which are part of the water vascular system and act as suction cups.

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Echinodermata Feeding

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Predators, herbivores, and filter feeders. The predators use their tube feet to pull prey, such as bivalves, apart. They push their stomach through their mouth, pour enzymes, and digest the mollusk in its own shell. It then pulls its stomach and the partially digested prey into its mouth.

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Echinodermata Habitat

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aquatic

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Echinodermata Special Abilities

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Sea cucumbers have the ability to shoot outlong, thin tubules from its anus when it is threatened by a predator. The predator becomes entangled and leaves the sea cucumber alone. Certain species of sea cucumbers will shoot out its who digestive system at the predator. IT takes a couple days for the sea cucumbers to regenerate its digestive tract.

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Echinodermata Examples

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starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea lillies, father stars, and sea cucumbers

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Characteristics of Animals (four)

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1. multicellular
2. eukaryotic
3. heterotrophic
4. at some point in the animal's life - motile (free-moving)

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Zygote

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the first cell produced after a sperm fertilizes an egg

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Zygote to...to...

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zygote to bastula to gastrula

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Bastula is

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a hollow sphere of cells

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Gastrula is

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a hollow half sphere of cells with a blastophere hole thingy

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Protostome

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an animal in which the blastopore becomes the mouth

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Deuterostome

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an animal in which the blastopore becomes the anus

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During embryonic development, the zygote begins to diferentiate into different types of cells. All of the specialized cells in an animal (ex. nerve, skin, blood) arose from one of the three germ (nothing to do with disease) layers.
The three germ layers are

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1. Endoderm: innermost layer that gives rise to the digestive tract and the respiratory system
2. Mesoderm: middle layer that tgives rise to muscles, circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems
3. Ectoderm: outermost layer that gives rise to the sense organs, nerves, and skin

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Body cavity/coelom

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fluid filled space that lies between the digestive tract and body wall

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Coelom organisms are called

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coelomates

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Some organisms such as roundworms have coelom, but it is not fully lined with mesoderm. These organisms are called

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pseudocoelomates

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Not all organisms have specialized organs and do not have coelom, such as a flatworm. These organisms are called

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acoelomates

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Radial symmetry

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when an animal has body parts radiating from a central point, like the spoke of a wheel. Cnidaria and echinoderms have radial symmetry and they contain a dorsal (back) and a ventral (belly) side

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Bilateral symmetry

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is when an animal has body parts arranged in pairs on either side of an axis. This allows the animal to not only have a dorsal ventral side, but also an anterior (head-side) and a posterior (tail-side).

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Animals with a backbone are called

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vertebrates

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Vertebrates are found in which phylum

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chordata

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To be a chordate, an animal must have

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a nerve cord (known as a spinal chord in humans) and a notochord (a rod that supports the nerve cord). In human embryo development, the notochord becomes the vertebral column, made of bone.

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Invertebrates are found in which phyla

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echinoderms, arthropods, annelids, mollusks, nematodes, platyhelminthes, cnidarians, porifera

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Exoskeleton

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hard encasement on the surface of the animal

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Hydrostatic skeleton

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body plan that is supported by a water filled cavity (worms) or an endoskeleton, which is a rigid framework inside the animal (sea stars)

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Joke time!! Which mollusk is the most cynical or negative?

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a nautilus

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Which class of chordata is the most musical?

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Reptilia, because they have scales

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hermaphrodite

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an organism that has reproductive organs normally associated with both male and female sexes

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polyp

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a small growth, typically benign and with a stalk, protruding from a mucous membrane.

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medusa

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a free-swimming sexual form of a coelenterate such as a jellyfish, typically having an umbrella-shaped body with stinging tentacles

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crop

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stores food prior to digestion

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gizzard

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it grinds food for mechanical digestion prior to chemical digestion in the stomach

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pharynx

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throat

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mantle

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dorsal body wall that covers the visceral mass...in other words, it is the flap of skin covering the main part of their body...its also the part of the body that secretes calcium carbonate to create a shell in clams, mussels etc.

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radula

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tongue-like structure that mechanically digests food

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muscular foot

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used for locomotion by invertebrates like certain mollusca

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nematocyst

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barbed, threadlike thing for use in capturing prey, famously in jellyfish

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thorax

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division of animal's body lying between head and abdomen

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cephalothorax

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head and thorax fused together

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chelicerae

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fang-like appendages used to kill prey in arthropoda

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pedipalps

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little arms that help grab stuff

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spicules

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spike-like thingies used to hold up porifera's shape and structure

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amoebocytes

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mobile cell (moving like an amoeba) in the body of invertebrates such as echinoderms, mollusks or sponges. They move by pseudopodia.

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scolex

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sucker part of a leech or a similar organism, and it is what latches onto the host

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proglottid

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each segment in the tapeworm, containing a complete sexually mature reproductive system

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septa

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walls separating segments in Annelida

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visceral mass

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it is a region of the body that contains most of the digestive, nervous, and excretory systems. It is protected by a hard shell.

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chromatophores

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what allows cephalopods to change color to suit the environment

Front 161

siphon

Back 161

shoots out water for jet propulsion (YEAHHHHHHHH)

Front 162

ink sac

Back 162

contains ink for a smoke screen effect in case of emergency

Front 163

chelipeds

Back 163

pincers in a crustacean

Front 164

swimmerets

Back 164

one of the paired abdominal appendages of certain aquatic crustaceans, such as shrimp and lobsters, that function primarily for swimming

Front 165

mandibles

Back 165

pair of mouthparts used for either for biting, cutting and holding food

Front 166

heart

Back 166

the role of the heart is to pump oxygen-rich blood to every living cell in the body

Front 167

atria

Back 167

larger, upper pair of chambers in heart; receives blood from veins and forces it into the ventricles (thin walls in the atria)

Front 168

ventricles

Back 168

a. The chamber on the left side of the heart that receives arterial blood from the left atrium and contracts to force it into the aorta.
b. The chamber on the right side of the heart that receives venous blood from the right atrium and forces it into the pulmonary artery.

Front 169

hemoglobin

Back 169

the iron-carrying, oxygen-transport protein that carries oxygen in your red blood cells, it carries oxygen and carbon dioxide, depending on where and when it's used

Front 170

erythrocytes

Back 170

red blood cells

Front 171

platelets

Back 171

cells that help to form blood clots

Front 172

leukocyte

Back 172

white blood cell, helps out in a major way in the immune system, are the T-cells

Front 173

antigen

Back 173

foreign, bad object that is in the body that must be gotten rid of

Front 174

arteries

Back 174

blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart

Front 175

veins

Back 175

blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart

Front 176

vena cava

Back 176

largest vein in the body, carries deoxygenated blood to the heart, there is the inferior and superior, superior takes blood from the brain to the heart, and inferior takes blood from the rest of the body to the heart

Front 177

aorta

Back 177

largest artery in the body, distributes oxygenated blood all over the body, has many, many branches

Front 178

capillaries

Back 178

smallest blood vessels, used for microcirculation to get blood everywhere, even the places vessels normally don't reach

Front 179

valves

Back 179

prevents the backflow of blood

Front 180

function(s) of the circulatory system

Back 180

- Transport gases, like oxygen from the lungs to cells around the body and carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
- Transport nutrients like glucose.
- Transport wastes from cells to organs that play the role of eliminating them.
- It contains cells that fight infections and defend against foreign bodies.
- Maintains the pH levels and ionic concentration of fluids in the body.
- Helps maintain the body temperature, this is especially important in warm blooded animals like humans.

Front 181

function(s) of the skeletal system

Back 181

- provides structural support for the entire body
- surrounds soft tissue- ex. ribs and sternum protect the heart and lungs, - skull protects the brain
- skeletal muscle is attached to bone for movement so the muscle pulls on the bone when it contracts
- stores calcium and phosphorus for mineral homeostasis -- minerals are released into the blood when needed
- blood cell production; red bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and other blood elements
- storage of minerals and lipids(fats)---yellow marrow stores fat --(found in long bones)

Front 182

function(s) of the muscular system

Back 182

- Body movement due to the contraction of skeletal muscles
- Maintenance of posture also due to skeletal muscles
- Respiration due to movements of the muscles of the thorax
- Production of body heat, which is necessary for the maintenance of body temperature, as a byproduct of muscle contraction
- Communication, such as speaking and writing, which involve skeletal muscles
- Constriction of organs and vessels, especially smoother muscles that can move solids and liquids in the digestive tract and other secretions, including urine, from organs
- Heart beat caused by the contraction of cardiac muscle that propels blood to all parts of the body

Front 183

function(s) of the integumentary system

Back 183

- Protects the body
- helps regulate body temperature
- eliminates some wastes
- helps make vitamin D
- detects sensations such as touch, pain, warmth and cold

Front 184

function(s) of the digestive system

Back 184

- Break up food into smaller pieces.
- Transporting food the the GI tract (gastrointestinal)
- Screeting digestive enzymes
- Absorbing nutrients into the blood
- Excreting solid waste products (waste)

Front 185

function(s) of the excretory system

Back 185

excreting waste from the body, whether from metabolic processes or as a biproduct of digestion

Front 186

function(s) of reproductive system

Back 186

to help the body to reproduce itself

Front 187

function(s) of the nervous system

Back 187

controls all mental activity and subsequent reactions within the body

Front 188

skeleton

Back 188

self-explanatory

Front 189

red bone marrow

Back 189

bone marrow used to create red blood cells

Front 190

cartilage

Back 190

flexible connective tissue found in many areas of the body (ears, nose, kneecap...)

Front 191

ligament

Back 191

short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue that connects two bones together

Front 192

tendon

Back 192

flexible connective tissue connecting muscle to bone

Front 193

cranium

Back 193

skull

Front 194

ribs

Back 194

ribs

Front 195

humerus

Back 195

upper arm bone

Front 196

radius and ulna

Back 196

lower arm bone (radius on outside, ulna on inside (alphabetical order))

Front 197

phalanges

Back 197

fingers

Front 198

metacarpals

Back 198

bone just prior to the phalanges on the hands

Front 199

carpals

Back 199

bones just before the metacarpals on the hands

Front 200

femur

Back 200

thigh bone

Front 201

patella

Back 201

knee

Front 202

tibia

Back 202

lower leg bone

Front 203

fibula

Back 203

lower leg bone (fibula on outside, tibia on inside, alphabetical order)

Front 204

tarsals

Back 204

bone right before the metatarsals on the foot

Front 205

metatarsals

Back 205

bone right before the phalanges (toes) on the foot

Front 206

epidermis

Back 206

upper, outermost layer of the skin, first skin layer of protection against the world

Front 207

dermis

Back 207

it consists of bundles of tough fibers and thus gives your skin its elasticity, firmness, and strength. it allows respiration. it determines the color of your skin.

Front 208

sebaceous gland

Back 208

secretes sebum that is made of fat (lipids) and debris of dead fat-producing cells, sebum protects and waterproofs hair and skin; keeps it from becoming dry, brittle, and cracked

Front 209

hair follicle

Back 209

sensory nerve fibers that wrap around each hair bulb

Front 210

sweat gland

Back 210

gland that secretes sweat and salt, often attracts foul-smelling bacteria

Front 211

smooth muscle

Back 211

involuntary, non-striated muscle (no nuclei)

Front 212

skeletal muscle

Back 212

striated and voluntary muscle (multinucleated cells)

Front 213

cardiac muscle

Back 213

involuntary striated muscle (mix between smooth and skeletal)

Front 214

striated muscle

Back 214

stretched out muscle and has bands

Front 215

nonstriated muscle

Back 215

not stretched out muscle, no bands

Front 216

stomach

Back 216

muscular, hollow, dilated part of the digestive system which chemically digests food

Front 217

peristalsis

Back 217

radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles which propagates in a wave down a muscular tube, used in the stomach for digestion

Front 218

esophagus

Back 218

muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx (throat) to the stomach

Front 219

pharynx

Back 219

throat

Front 220

epiglottis

Back 220

flap of elastic cartilage tissue covered with a mucous membrane, attached to the entrance of the larynx

Front 221

mouth

Back 221

mouth

Front 222

small intestines

Back 222

absorption of nutrients and minerals found in food

Front 223

large intestines

Back 223

absorbs water from the remaining indigestible food matter and transmits the useless waste material from the body

Front 224

villi

Back 224

increases the surface area of the intestines (small... AND large?) so as to increase its capacity to absorb nutrients and liquid from the food passing through it

Front 225

bile

Back 225

helps digest lipids

Front 226

liver

Back 226

cleaning away toxins

Front 227

gallbladder

Back 227

stores bile

Front 228

pancreas

Back 228

helps absorb nutrients

Front 229

sodium bicarbonate

Back 229

neutralizes stomach acid and digestive enzymes

Front 230

large intestines

Back 230

absorbs water from fecal matter

Front 231

rectum

Back 231

stores fecal matter until ready for rocket launch through the anus

Front 232

anus

Back 232

hole through which fecal matter is expelled/launched

Front 233

kidneys

Back 233

homeostasis of all kinds, excretion of biproducts created during metabolism

Front 234

ureter

Back 234

carries urine down to bladder

Front 235

bladder

Back 235

holds urine

Front 236

nephron

Back 236

basic unit of kidney

Front 237

larynx

Back 237

voice box

Front 238

trachea

Back 238

tube that connects the pharynx and the larynx to the lungs (trachea part of respiratory, esophagus part of digestive)

Front 239

bronchi

Back 239

passage of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air through the lungs

Front 240

bronchioles

Back 240

bronchi branch off into bronchioles

Front 241

alveoli

Back 241

terminal ends of the respiratory "tree", sites of gas exchange of oxygen and CO2

Front 242

diaphragm

Back 242

muscle that expands and contracts the lungs - involuntary (obviously...)

Front 243

nasal cavity

Back 243

hole where oxygen goes through the nose and to the pharynx (throat)

Front 244

lungs

Back 244

hmmm. I wonder.

Front 245

dendrite

Back 245

tree-like part of a neuron that conducts electricity

Front 246

axon

Back 246

long fiber that sends and receives electric signals

Front 247

cerebrum

Back 247

largest portion of brain

Front 248

cerebellum

Back 248

what makes you you (you can tell because it's the longest word...)

Front 249

brain stem

Back 249

controls automatic stuffs like breathing and heart-pumping and digestion

Front 250

good luck

Back 250

GOOD LUCK... study your notes........