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31 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Levels of Communication |
Intrapersonal Communication Interpersonal Communication Small Group Communication Organizational Communication Intercultural Communication Mass Communication |
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Intrapersonal Communication |
* first level of communication * Communication that happens within the person, i.e. a “light bulb moment” or “epiphany” * This is when we analyze, process information, daydream, reflect on things that happened during the day, etc. |
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Interpersonal Communication |
* second level of communication * Communication that takes place between two people, a sender and a receiver *This kind of communication has immediate feedback; the role of sender and receiver can change constantly throughout a conversation * There is a constant back-and-forth exchange of information * Non-verbal communication plays a large role in this kind of communication. |
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Small Group Communication |
* third level of communication * Communication that takes place in a group of up to 25 individuals * Can be thought of in two ways: Interpersonal (i.e. when you’re hanging out with friends) OR A group of people with a goal for communication (i.e. a team working on a project) * This group often has a leader to steer the conversation * There are many opinions and points of view * This can lead to an overload of information, and can make communication difficult to manage |
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Organizational Communication |
* fourth level of communication * Communication that takes place in an organizational setting (i.e. a business setting) * Often very formal communication * There is a hierarchy in the channels of communication (i.e. consulting your project leader rather than going over their head and talking to the overall boss) |
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Intercultural Communication |
* fifth level of communication * Communication between people from different cultures o Gain more perspectives due to being exposed to different cultural backgrounds * Can get emotional due to analyzing the cultural identities of different people * Can get very uncomfortable due to the massive differences in cultures |
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Mass Communication |
* sixth level of communication * comm that reaches large group of people and is mostly one directional sender -> receiver but can be ignored by receiver * The audience is heterogeneous * These source organizations tend to be very big and rich, as a lot of money is needed to broadcast a message * the message has to be broad enough to apply to a very large group of receivers * the feedback Delayed and very limited |
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powerful media effects paradigm 1920-1940 |
* Assumes that media is powerful, extremely persuasive, dangerous, negative * Assumes that people are weak, depressed, vulnerable, brainwashed * Views media effects as direct, strong, negative, powerful, everyone is impacted the same way *Media is used for persuasion, not entertainment in this theory * This is similar to the linear models of communication * This shows a cause-effect relationship * It assumes that everyone is impacted the same way by the media
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Magic Bullet Theory (powerful media effects paradigm) |
* the media immediately hits you * you have no where to hide from it and nothing to shield you from it *The "Magic Bullet" theory graphically assumes that the media's message is a bullet fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head" *the hypodermic needle suggests that media injects its messages straight into the passive audience * everyone is impacted in the same way * views people as “sitting ducks” |
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Propaganda theories (powerful media effects paradigm) |
* using propaganda properly can persuade an entire population to support certain causes * came in support of the theories that stated that the media has strong negative effects * the ability to persuade an entire population to think one thing is dangerous in the wrong hands |
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Paradigm of limited media effects 1940-1960 |
* Assumes media is weak, exists to satisfy the needs of the society and the individual, needs to compete for the attention of the individual because people CHOOSE to engage w/ media * Assumes people are powerful and in control, more important than the media, rational and aware of the influence of the media, and are immune to it and to the negative influences of the media * Assumes that media effects can be either +/-, effect individuals in different ways, do not cause dramatic changes in individuals; if anything, they re-enforce attitudes and behaviors that already exist in the individual |
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Structural-Functional Theory (limited media effects paradigm) |
* the media exists to fulfill roles: Society is like a living organism that has needs and the media fulfills these needs * there could be groups, sections, or clusters in a society that has different needs than others * manifest functions: an outcome that you intend to receive, i.e. watching television to be entertained * latent functions: an outcome that you do not intend to receive but do anyways, i.e. watching television to be entertained but learning something new in addition to receiving entertainment * dysfunctions: reading articles about disease in the newspaper and becoming terrified of new diseases being spread around the world |
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Uses and Gratifications Theory (limited media effects paradigm) |
* assumes that every individual person is different and unique and people are more important than the media * the media exists to gratify the needs of the individual (same as the Structural-Functional Theory) we CHOSE to be exposed to media * Herta Herzog interviewed housewives about soap operas and found that they have three main gratifications: emotional relief, wishful thinking, advice * Peoples’ use of the media is goal-oriented * attention: we choose to pay attention, retention: we retain the information that we want, perception: everyone perceives things differently |
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The 2-Step Flow of Communication Theory (limited media effects paradigm) |
*lazarsfeld 1940 presidential race * Early deciders – un-changed all along (50%) Wavers – switched mind but eventually voted for candidate that was their first pick (15%) Converters – changed their mind (8%) Crystallizers – in beginning did not have a choice but by end they picked a clear candidate * Main Assumptions: 3 Types of People: 1. Media 2. Opinion Leaders – affected by media - An expert in one subject/field - Early deciders 3. Opinion Followers – affected by opinion leaders - Wavers, converters, and crystallizers *2 Important Roles of Media 1. Provides information 2. Centers people – shows them whole picture |
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The Paradigm of Moderate-to-Powerful media effects 1960's onwards |
* This Paradigm states that some media content affects some people some of the time in some ways under some conditions. * This Paradigm is seen as a middle ground between the two other paradigms |
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The Agenda Setting Theory (Paradigm of Moderate-to-Powerful media effects) |
* Walter Lippmann’s Public Opinion: This theory focuses specifically on the news media: pseudo environment: world is huge and things happen everyday. the news media chooses what is shown and what isn't * Cohen says the press “may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” * Chapel Hill Study: correlation between media coverage of presidential campaign and what people thought of the campaign * transfer of salience: The most prominent issue of the news = the most important issue for the people |
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Framing & The Third Person Effect (Paradigm of Moderate-to-Powerful media effects) |
* The media tells us exactly how to think, not just what to think about * A frame is created by selecting, emphasizing, and elaborating on certain facts while excluding others * Iyengar says there are two ways to frame a news piece: episodic and thematic * Gaza conflict news piece: images of gazans vs images of israeli politicians vs. no images * third person effect: Pluralistic ignorance deals with the fact that we silently reject the norm but we think that everyone else agrees with it * Because these people are so confident that their knowledge of the topic makes them immune to media effects, they do not even notice when they are effected |
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The Spiral of Silence Theory (Paradigm of Moderate-to-Powerful media effects) |
* Noelle-Neumann 1974 Explaining election outcomes in Germany: People said they would vote for A even though they thought B would win: the media is to blame for this restriction of democracy * Media is powerful because it is always around us and we cant escape it, everything adds up, the information presented in all the different media outlets is consistent across mediums, media encourages people not to express a different opinion, because they will be isolated for not agreeing with the media’s opinion * People want to know what most people think because they want to fit in * Most people won’t express an idea if they think that it would threaten them with social isolation * The spiral of silence process develops over time * hard-cores and avant gardes dont go along with theory |
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Social Learning (Cognitive) Theory (Paradigm of Moderate-to-Powerful media effects) |
* Derived from Bandura’s Bobo Boll study: Girls did not show violent behavior at first & Children can learn aggression from the screen * behavior -> environment -> personal determinates -> behavior etc * This theory is different from tabula rasa because it assumes that our past experiences affect us just as much as the media * cognitive process: Symbolizing capability (People learn things through symbols), Self regulatory capability, Self reflective capability, Vicarious capability, All of these cognitive capabilities are what makes us capable of observational learning (This means that we learn from observing others) |
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Cultivation Theory (Paradigm of Moderate-to-Powerful media effects) |
* Objective reality: reality that is happening right now. Pseudo- reality: the version of reality that the media presents to us. Subjective reality: each individual looks at the same reality, but gives different meaning and interpretation to reality based on their past experiences. * Background: The concern about media violence and the rise of TV: George Gerbner * The ultimate effect: Reinforcing a world view that is similar to TV’s world view * Heavy TV viewers are more impacted than light TV viewers * "clean violence" when things are violent but censored - no blood after stabbing in video game * The cultivation process occurs in 2 ways: mainstreaming and resonance |
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Media Events (Paradigm of Moderate-to-Powerful media effects) |
* Contests, Coronations, Conquests * Global Village: live events bring people together * Television can broadcast both video and audio, which is used to grab the attention of the viewer and can create an emotional reaction * The medium of television is absolutely critical in influencing the audience, regarding media events * Interruptions of ordinary programming: monopolistic: The take over from the regular patterns of TV: Sometimes, even advertising is suspended as part of a media event * Dylan and Katz: Pre-organized, remote, live broadcasts * Some scholars argue that breaking news is also a media event i.e. terror attacks Dylan and Katz don’t agree with this * Focus on reconciliation and restoring order * Effects: Minimizing individual differences in exposure, Turning the home into a public space, Evoking emotions, Active viewing, Social integration/boundary creation, A commemorative function, Viewing as a member of society, Agenda setting, Status conferral, Shaping public opinion, Catalyst for social movements * Disaster Marathons: like media events but not pre-organized and not spearheaded by media |
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Technological Determinism |
* Technological Determinism refers to theories that deal with the CHANNEL of communication rather than the source, audience, effects, message, etc * Harold Adams Innis: Toronto School * Innis says the media creates the technology with an agenda the use of the technology is then guided by that agenda * Time-binding technologies: durable and stand the test of time but are not portable: cave paintings * Space-binding technologies: allow for communication across long distances but do not last for long periods of time after their initial creation: papyrus scrolls: promotes the expansion and development of society * McLuhan: Sensory organization: Media organizes the information that is presented to us: Media are extensions of our senses: Different media activates different senses: Defining our perception of reality * Technology determines the way that society is shaped: Innis - because of the bias that the media takes: McLuhan - because of sensory experience * Social implications of electronic media: Innis - space-binding media passes international barriers -> rapid exchange of information from various sources which leads to worldwide secular urban culture: McLuhan - the print age encourages personal interaction but the electronic age encourages multiple senses and more interaction -> retribalizaiton watching TV together vs reading book alone * Generation Gap * Neal Postman: The disappearance of childhood |
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Neo Marxist Theories (Critical/normative theories) |
* Marxism: ideology fathered by Karl Marx in the mid-late 19th century: during times of industrialism, urbanism, and rise of capitalism: Elite create a false consciousness: Marx believed in the need for a working class revolution: Base and Superstructure * Neo Marxism: ideology based on Marxist ideas, but that is more critical of them: All theories focus on oppression and manipulation: criticize reality: Claim in reality few elites control all mass media and therefore the media support (rather than change) the status quo: Media present bias information without opposition: Political elite depend on mass media * Political Economy Theory: Herb Schiller: Main Assumptions - If you have the money you have the power, Media operate solely out of consideration for profit, Economic stability as a way to maintain the status quo, Focuses more on media production, distribution, and consumption and less on specific content * Frankfurt School: Theodor Adorno: Saw media pessimistically: Main Focuses - Artificial integration of social classes, Servants of the ruling class, Popular culture as the lowest common denominator, Manipulation by media to maintain status quo, Narcotization, A focus on content and culture: Cultural industry- more accurate name for mass culture, since it is not a culture that arises spontaneously from the masses - Products are tailored for consumption by the masses, and also determine the nature of that consumption: Loss of Aura * Hegemony: Antonio Gramsci: Background - Italy in late 1920's is worse than Germany so why are they not revolting?: Main point- elites control our ideology through control of superstructure, and not through coercion but through socialization, and we willingly accept it: Happens in 2 Ways- Socialization of media professionals and Cultural Negotiation: Theory studied symbols in media that represent elite ideology and claims ideology is always around us, therefore we accept it as natural * Political Economy: Money and ruler intertwined with media and directly affect people. Frankfurt School: Dominant class creates content to control the people. Hegemony: Dominant class creates the content unknowingly which subconsciously controls the people |
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Cultural Critical Theories |
* Fiske’s Model (1986) *Focuses on meaning we get from content: In order to be popular media must use open text - Open to discussion and interpretation * Sub-cultures resist, pressure, and criticize dominant ideology: media is Polysemic: Audience is active and interprets content according to personal belief system * Importance on how content is interpreted in the community: T.V. content must be open text with unresolved contradictions - So that each viewer can take it his own way * Hall’s Theory (1981) * Also based on the message we receive * Assumes 3 Types of Reading: Dominant reading – reading with acceptance of the intended meaning of the source. Critical reading – actively reading, questioning, and criticizing. Oppositional Reading – interpretation of reading in complete opposite meaning on what was intended by source * Existence of semiotic excess: when reading text as dominant group, feel pleasure, knowledge, and recognition; and when reading text as opposition feel freedom, satisfaction, and better understanding of system |
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Feminism (Critical/normative theories) |
* Gender: both social constructed and innate range of characteristics used to distinguish between the sexes * The Woman Myth: Ronald Barthes "the rhetoric of image": Claimed already in old times women were worshipped: focused on commercials to learn from society * The Beauty Myth: Naomi Wolf: Beauty as a psychological and physical oppression: Beauty has economic and political interests: Beauty determined by politics: Industry has huge interest in making us feel un-pretty - Beauty myth makes women concentrate on other things as opposed to concentrating on getting equal rights: Aging presented as ugly - To push surgery - Because women get smarter with age * Objectification of Women: Gofman: Categories: a. Relative height - Exaggerated in ads - Makes men seem “above” b. Feminist touch - Feminine body part - Softness c. Functional rating - In professional and social orders men presented as with better status d. The Family - Basic social unit commonly adopted in advertisements - Women as the mother e. The ritual of obedience - Always smiling f. License withdrawal - Presented as damsels in distress in past - Today shown with a little more power * Disney Princesses: the change in princesses over time - Snow White running away, falling and crying in the forrest to Merida in Brave: Princes also changed- used to be seen as manly masculine and save the day and in Frozen there is no "prince" |
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Categorization of Effects |
1. Level a. Micro - impact on the individual b. Macro - impact on large communities 2. Types a. Cognitive – Learning and attaining new information b. Attitudinal – changes in moral judgement c. Behavioral – changes in behavior d. Physiological – bodily change (heart rate, sweat, tears) e. Emotional/Affective – changes in emotion/feeling 3. Forms a. Alteration Effect: change of opinion due to media b. Stabilization Effect: reinforcement of opinion due to media 4. Direction a. Constructive – positive effects b. Destructive – negative effects b/c of exposure 5. Intentionality a. Intentional – what sender intended b. Unintentional – not what sender intended 6. Role of Content a. Content Dependent: emphasis on the specific content b. Content Independent: emphasis on the medium (i.e. obesity to watching TV) 7. Strength a. Weak -----> Powerful: because of a fashion show not eating a donut vs. becoming bulimic 8. Duration a. Short term b. Long term 9. Timing a. Immediate: watching mcd's ad and going to get burger b. Sleeper/Delayed: watching skinny girls on TV form childhood and developing eating disorder 10. Linearity a. Linear Effect: the more you watch the more you get affected b. Non-linear Effect: once you reach the highest point, the effect decreases - i.e. scary movies reach climax then resolve themselves |
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Laswell’s Model 1948 (Linear Model of Communication) |
* “Who says what to whom through which channel and what effect” * Source (who?) -> channel (which?) -> message (what?) -> receiver (whom?) -> effect (what?) * Limitation: Message is one directional & No feedback |
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Shannon-Weaver’s Model 1949 (Linear Model of Communication) |
* Info source -> signal transmitter -> transmitter -> channel (noise source) -> signal received -> receiver -> destination * Noise: something affecting the receiving of the message (physical noise is only noise in this model |
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Schramm’s Model 1957 (Process/interactional model of communication) |
* Encoder = sender, sends the message * Decoder = receiver, interprets message and then becomes encoder and process goes on, constantly changing: its a loop * encoder -> message -> decoder -> interpreter -> encoder -> message ->decoder -> interpreter
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Berlo’s Model 1960 (Process/interactional model of communication) |
*columns Source o Communication skills o Individual must possess effective communication skills o Attitude o Knowledge o Social system o Culture Message o Content o What is actually being said o Elements o Everything that compliments it (hand movements, gestures, eye contact, etc.) o Treatment o Structure o Codes Channel o Hearing o Seeing o Touching o Tasting o Feeling Receiver o Communication skills o Attitude o Social system o Culture |
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Watzlawick-Beanin-Jackson’s Model 1967 (Transactional models of communication) |
* Focus isn’t message but what you do with it * Mutual on going relationship * Point 1 and point 11 are not the same * What person A and person B say help lead to the end point * What one person says affects the other * zig zag line between person A and B where the line represents the message |
