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222 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
The study of the functions and disorders of the nervous system.
Neurology
Two divisions of the nervous system:
1) Central
2) Peripheral
Detect stimuli (changes) inside the body - respond to stimuli by generating nerve impulses along sensory or afferent neurons that travel into the spinal cord and brain.
Sensory Input
Integrate or process sensory information.
Interpretive Functions
Response to muscle tissue or glands.
Motor Output
Responsible for mental processes cognition and memory as well as emotions.
Higher Mental Functioning and Emotional Responses
Primarily concerned with interpreting incoming sensory information & issuing instructions in the form of motor responses. The major control center for thoughts and emotional experiences.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Major components of the CNS: (List 4)
1) Brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon and brainstem
2) Meninges
3) Cerebrospinal fluid
4) Spinal chord
These structures are surrounded by the bones of the skull and spinal column.
CNS
Composed of the cranial and spinal nerves emerging from the CNS.
PNS
Originate from the brain.
Cranial Nerves
Exit from the spinal chord.
Spinal Nerves
How many pairs of nerves does the PNS have?
43 pairs:
12 pairs of cranial
31 pairs of spinal
The PNS can be subdivided into two systems.
Somatic & the Autonomic Nervous Systems
Has sensory neurons that carry information from bones, muscles, joints and the skin as well as from sensory receptors for the special senses of vision, hearing, taste and smell into the CNS.
Somatic Nervous System
What in the SNS carry impulses from the CNS out to skeletal muscles.
Motor Neurons
Motor responses that can be consciously controlled.
Voluntary
Voluntary, info to and from bones, muscles, joints and skin.
Somatic Nervous System
(SNS)
Involuntary, info to and from smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, gland and organs.
Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS)
Fight or flight.
Sympathetic
Rest and digest, active under calm conditions.
Parasympathetic
Connective tissue that supports, nourishes, protects, insulates and organizes neurons.
Neuroglia
Connective tissue of the CNS is composed of: (List 4)
1) Astocytes
2) Ependymocytes
3) Microglia
4) Oligodendrocytes
Support and blood-brain barrier.
Astrocytes
Line cranial ventricles and central canal.
Ependymocytes
Destroys pathogens.
Microglia
Produce myelin sheaths.
Oligodendrocytes
Connective tissue of the PNS is composed of: (List 2)
1) Satellite Cells
2) Schwann Cells
Support around neuron cell bodies in ganglia.
Satellite Cells
Produce myelin sheaths.
Schwann Cells
Fatty insulating sheaths that surround axons of nerves.
Myelin Sheaths
Nerve cells.
Neurons
Properties of Neurons: (List 2)
1) Excitability
2) Conductibility
Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to an impulse.
Excitability
Ability to transmit impulses.
Conductibility
Parts of a Neuron: (List 3)
1) Dendrites
2) Cell Body (Cyton)
3) Axon
Short branches that receive and transmit stimuli toward cell body.
Dendrites
Contain nucleus and organelles.
Cell body (Cyton)
Long branch that carries impulse away from the cell body.
Axon
Parts of a Axon: (List 5)
1) Synaptic Bulbs
2) Synaptic Vescicles
3) Telodendria
4) Myelin Sheath
5) Nodes of Ranvier
Terminal ends that contain synaptic vescicle.
Synaptic Bulbs
Produce and store neurotransmitters.
Synaptic Vescicles
Fine filaments at end of axon.
Telodendria
White fatty covering that insulate axons to increase speed of conduction.
Myelin Sheath
Gaps in myelin sheath that can increase impulse speed as impulse jumps from node to node.
Nodes of Ranvier
Classifications of Nerves: (List 5)
1) Sensory
2) Interneurons
3) Motor
4) Reflex Arc
5) Neurons to Nerves
In PNS carry impulses from sensory receptors to CNS.
Sensory Neurons
In CNS connect sensory neurons to motor neurons and vice versa; integrate (process) sensory info, analyze it, store it and make decisions about appropriate responses.
Interneurons
In PNS carry impulses from CNS that activate or inhibit effectors (muscles or glands).
Motor Neurons
Simplest functional unit of the nervous system that consist of afferent neuron, interneuron and efferent neuron.
Reflex Arc
Instantaneous, automatic response to a stimulus, short and quick, bypasses the brain.
Reflex
Name three (3) different types of reflexes:
1) Somatic
2) Visceral
3) Physiopathological
Responsible for contraction of skeletal muscles.
Somatic Reflex
Maintain homeostasis and is responsible for contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle as wells as glands.
Visceral Reflex
Abnormal reflex caused by increased stimuli or increase in amount of afferent impulses entering the cord (can lead to trigger point formation causing pain-spasm-pain cycle).
Physiopathological Reflex
Nerves are bundles of neurons held together by several layers of connective tissue. (Name 3 layers)
1) Endoneurium
2) Perineurium
3) Epineurium
Wraps neurons - single nerve fibers.
Endoneurium
Wraps fascicles - bundles of neurons.
Perineurium
Wraps nerves - bundles of fascicles.
Epineurium
A matter of ions changing places and creating different electrical charges along the cell membrane.
Nerve Impulse
Neural cell membranes possess potentials, or opportunities. (Name 2)
1) Resting Potential
2) Action Potential
Neuron not carrying an impulse, maintained by Sodium-Potassium pump (active transport moving sodium and potassium ions in opposite directions).
Resting Potential
An electrical fluctuation traveling along the surface of a neuron's cell membrane.
Action Potential
The principle that states that a nerve impulse can be conducted only at maximum capacity.
All or Nothing Response
Name two (2) types of nerve conduction:
1) Continuous
2) Saltatory
Nerve impulse conduction along unmyelinated axons (SLOWER).
Continuous Conduction
Nerve impulse conduction along myelinated axons (FASTER).
Saltatory Conduction
Junction between two neurons or between a neuron and muscle or gland.
Synapse
Sufficient intensity to generate an impulse.
Threshold Stimulus
Amount of repeated sub-threshold stimuli can add together to create an impulse (frequency and number of fibers stimulated).
Summation
Chemical messengers that travel across synapse.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters can be either...
Excitatory or Inhibitory
Decrease membrane potential to increase impulse rate.
Excitatory
Increase membrane potential to decrease impulse rate.
Inhibitory
The most common neurotransmittter that is vital for stimulating muscle contraction and is found in junctions between motor nerves and muscles (neuromuscular junction).
Acetylcholine
Chemical family containing norepinephrine, epinephrine and dopamine, with major functions which include excitation and inhibition of certain muscles , cardiac excitation, metabolic and endocrine action that act directly on the sympathetic nervous system.
Catecholamines
Located in several areas of the CNS and in the sympathetic division of the ANS, this neurotransmitter can be either excitatory ir inhibitory and acts as a hormone when secreted by cells of the adrenal medulla.
Epinephrine
Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla, it mediates several physiological and metabolical responses that follow the stimulation of the sympathetic effectors of the brain; it is also involved in arousal, dreaming, mod regulation and emotional responses.
Norepinephrine
Neurotransmitter found in the brain and ANS that is mostly inhibitory and is involved in emotions, mood and in regulating motor control; also implicated in attention and learning.
Dopamine
Naturally occurring derivative of tryptophan (an amino acid), is found in several regions of the CNS and is mostly inhibitory and is important for sensory perception, mood regulation and normal sleep.
Serotonin
Found in the brain is mostly excitatory and is involved in emotions and regulation of body temperature and water balance and stimulates inflammatory responses when not acting as a neurotransmitter.
Histamine
Located in several regions of the CNS, the retina, and the intestinal tract, these neurotransmitters are mostly inhibitory and act similarly to opiates to block pain.
Enkephalins and Endorphins
Connective tissue coverings surrounding brain and spinal chord.
Meninges
The meninges are composed of three layers and their corresponding spaces. (List innermost to outermost):
Pia Mater
Subarachnoid Space
Arachnoid Layer
Subdural Space
Dura Mater
Epidural Space
The thin innermost layer that is delicate, transparent and vascular and is attached to the surface of the CNS.
Pia Mater
Located between the pia mater and the arachnoid, filled with cerebrospinal fluid and an arrangement of collagen and elastic fibers that resemble a spider's web; these extensions extend into the arachnoid.
Subarachnoid Space
The middle layer that forms a web-like loose covering around the CNS.
Arachnoid Mater
Filled with circulating serous fluid and lying between the dura mater and the arachnoid.
Subdural Space
Thick, dense, outermost layer that lies against the bone and contains a double layer of connective tissue, with the outer layer resembling periosteum.
Dura Mater
Layer that lies between the dura and the vertebral canal that is the safest place for injections such as saddle blocks, contains adipose tissue, connective tissue and blood vessels.
Epidural Space
The dura mater surrounding the brain dips down between the cerebral hemispheres creating the...
Falx Cerebri
The dura mater surrounding the brain dips across between the cerebrum and cerebellum creating the...
Tentorium Cerebelli
The dura mater surrounding the brain dips down between the paired cerebellar hemispheres creating the...
Falx Cerebelli
Circulates around the brain and spinal chord, is derived from blood, supplies oxygen and nutrients, carries away wastes and works as a shock absorber.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Exits the skull through the foramen magnum and extends approximately to L2 and in addition to being an integrating center, it acts as an information highway that conveys sensory information from peripheral nerves up to the brain and conveys motor information from the brain out to peripheral nerves.
Spinal Chord
Two enlargements are located in the length of the spinal chord.
1) Filum Terminale
2) Cauda Equina
The lower end of the spinal chord marked by threadlike fibrous extension of the pia mater that is anchored to the coccyx.
Filum Terminale
The ends of the chord fan out resembling a horse's tail.
Cauda Equina
How many pairs of nerves exist and list their types? (List 5 types and # of coenciding pairs)
31 pairs

1) Cervical - 8
2) Thoracic - 12
3) Lumbar - 5
4) Sacral - 5
5) Coccygeal - 1
A cross-section of the spinal chord reveals what two types of matter?
White and Gray Matter
Matter on the periphery of the spinal chord.
White Matter
Neuron cell bodies at the center of the spinal chord.
Gray Matter
What shape is the gray matter in at the center of the chord?
"H" shaped
The sides of the "H" are called?
Horns
The center of the "H" is a structure that runs the entire length of the spinal chord and contains CSF.
Central Canal
White matter is organized into regions named?
Columns
Within the spinal chord is a collection of nerves running up and down in columns called?
Tracts
Nerve Tracts are divided into two categories.
1) Ascending
Carry sensory or afferent impulses up the chord.
Ascending tracts
Carry motor or efferent impulses down the chord.
Descending tracts
The brain consists of 5 main compnents:
1) Cerebrum
2) Diencephalon
3) Cerebellum
4) Brainstem
5)Blood-Brain Barrier
Largest part of the brain, divided into right and left hemispheres.
Cerebrum
Regulates motor output, cognition and speech production.
Frontal Lobe
Governs somatosensory output (skin and muscles) and taste.
Parietal Lobe
Houses auditory and olfactory areas and language comprehension.
Temporal Lobe
Contains center for visual input.
Occipital Lobe
Controls left side of the body, perception of nonspeech auditory sounds, perceiving and visualizing spatial relationships.
Right Hemisphere
Controls right side of the body, specializes in language, both receptive and expressive, and hand movements.
Left Hemisphere
Rhythmic electric impulses produced in the cerebral cortex.
Brain Waves
Machine that records brain waves.
EEG - Electroencephalogram
Four types of brain waves (fastest to slowest):
1) Beta
2) Alpha
3) Theta
4) Delta
Wakeful consciousness and mental activity, busy waves
Beta waves
Relaxed waves, awake but relaxed and nonattentive
Alpha waves
Drowsiness, dreamlike awareness
Theta waves
Deep sleep
Delta waves
Center of the brain.
Diencephalon
4 parts of the Diencephalon:
1) Thalamus
2) Hypothalmus
3) Pituitary Gland
4) Pineal Gland
Relays sensory information to cerebrum.
Thalamus
Regulates ANS and endocrine system by governing the pituitray gland and controls the circadian rhythm.
Hypothalmus
Connected to the hypothalmus by infundibulum, it sits in sella turcica of sphenoid bone.
Pituitary Gland
Produces and secretes melatonin for sleep.
Pineal Gland
Second largest part of the brain, concerned with muscle tone, coordination, complex movements, posture and balance.
Cerebellum
Continuous with the spinal chord and has three main divisions.
Brainstem
Three (3) main divisions of the Brainstem:
1) Midbrain
2) Pons
3) Medulla Oblongata
Conducts nerve impulses from cerebrum to pons and sensory impulses from spinal chord to thalmus.
Midbrain
Relays nerve impulses from one side of cerebellum to the other.
Pons
Most inferior portion, conducts sensory and motor impulses between other parts of the brain and spinal chord, contains crossing over fibers, most vital part because it contains respiratory, cardiovascular and vasomotor centers.
Medulla Oblongata
Semipermeable wall of capillaries to prevent or slow down passage of chemical compounds and disease-causing organisms; blood itself can kill neurons if it comes into contact with them.
Blood-Brain Barrier
All nervous tissue outside the CNS.
PNS
Peripheral nerves arising from the brain.
Cranial Nerves
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
12 pairs
Smell - cranial nerve?
Olfactory (I)
Vision - cranial nerve?
Optic (II)
Movement of the eyeball - cranial nerve?
Oculomotor (III)
Facial muscles - cranial nerve?
Facial (VII)
Hearing and equilibrium - cranial nerve?
Auditory (VIII)
Aids digestion and regulates heart activity - cranial nerve?
Vagus (X)
Peripheral nerves arising from the spinal chord.
Spinal Nerves
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
31 pairs
Each spinal nerve of each pair has?
Anterior and Posterior Roots
Anterior (or Ventral) root contain?
Motor Neurons
Posterior (or Dorsal) root contain?
Sensory Neurons
A cluster of nerve cell bodies located in the PNS are called?
Ganglion
Most ganglia are located?
Next to the spinal cord.
A network of intersecting nerves in the PNS is called?
A Plexus
Four most important ones are?
1) Cervical plexus (C1-C5) supplies head and neck
2) Brachial plexus (C5-T1) supplies upper extremity
3) Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) supplies abdomen, low back and genetalia
4) Sacral plexus (L4-S4) supplies posterior hip
An area of skin that a specific sensory nerve root innervates, a map of the distribution of these nerves.
Dermatone
A group of skeletal muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve.
Myotome
Innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands, it controls circulation of blood, gastrointestinal activity, body temperature, respiration rate, and many other functions.
Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS)
Rest and digest, housekeeping system, also called craniosacral flow because it is present at cranial nerves and S2-S4, broadens the perceptual field.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Fight or flight, responses require energy, effects include pupil dilation, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, dilation of airways, also called thoracolumbar flow because it lies in chain of ganglia from T1-L2.
Sympathetic Nervous System
General Sense - Special receptors found in the skin, perceive heat, cold, pressure, pain and movement, most primitive of all senses.
TOUCH
Chemoreceptors and strongly influenced by sense of smell.
TASTE
4 primary tastes:
1) Salty
2) Sweet
3) Bitter
4) Sour
Chemoreceptors in the nasal cavity detect odors, strongest sense linked to memory.
SMELL
Uses photoreceptors in the eye, convert light energy into nerve impulses on the retina, which are transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve for visual interpretation.
VISION
Detection of sound waves or vibrations via mechanoreceptors in the ear.
HEARING
Two characteristics of sound:
1) Pitch
2) Volume
The quality of a tone or sound, which depends on vibration speed.
Pitch
The loudness of sound and can change without altering pitch.
Volume
The sensory nerve endings are located in the skin, mucous membranes, and sense organs, responding to stimuli originating from outside the body, such as touch, pressure and sound.
Exteroceptors
This group is located in the skin, ears, muscles, tendons, joints, and fascia and responds to movement and position.
Proprioceptors
Also known as visceroceptors, these receptors are located in the viscera and respond to stimuli originating from within the body regarding the function of the internal organs, such as digestion, excretion, and blood pressure.
Interoceptors
They can be classified by location and can also be classified by the stimuli detected.
Sensory Receptors
List 5 Sensory receptors:
1) Chemoreceptors
2) Mechanoreceptors
3) Thermoreceptors
4) Photoreceptors
5) Nociceptors.
When a stimulus is constant over time, a decrease in sensitivity to a prolonged stimulus, may occur.
Adaptation
Activated by chemical stimuli, detect smells, tastes and changes in blood chemistry.
Chemoreceptors
Respond to mechanical stimuli, found in skin, blood vessels, ears, muscles, tendons, joints & fascia.
Mechanoreceptors
Examples of these receptors are Meissner, Ruffini, and Pacinian corpuscles, Krause end bulbs, Merkel disks and hair root plexuses.
Touch and pressure receptors
What are the two most important stretch receptors?
1) Muscle Spindles
2) Golgi Tendon Organs
Stretch-sensitive receptors wrapped around intrafusal muscle fibers and monitors changes in muscle length, as well as the rate of this change. When muscle is over stretched this causes a reflex contraction of muscle to prevent tearing, located in belly of muscle.
Muscle Spindle - Stretch Reflex
Located at musculotendinous junctions, they are activated by both tension and slow stretch. Ensure muscle does not contract too strongly, causes inhibition of contraction to prevent tendon damage located in musculotendinous junction.
Golgi Tendon Organ - Tendon Reflex
Stretch receptors in wall of carotid arteries and aortic arch, sense changes in blood pressure.
Baroreceptor
Sensitive to light, located in retina of the eye.
Photoreceptors
Detect dim light and shades of black, white and gray.
Rods
Colorvision
Cones
Free nerve endings that detect pain, located in almost every body tissue except brain, serve a protective function and rarely adapt.
Nociceptors
Detect changes in temperature, different ones for hot and cold.
Thermoreceptors
Characterized by confusion, memory failure, disorientation, restlessness, delusions and speech and movement.
Alzheimer's Disease

INDICATED
Episodes of severe intense anxiety and panic.
Anxiety Disorders

INDICATED
Unilateral facial paralysis of sudden onset resulting from inflammation of cranial nerve (VII) Facial Nerve
Bell's Palsy

INDICATED
Mood disorder in which both depressive and manic episodes occur.
Bipolar Disorder

INDICATED
Repetitive stress injury caused by compression of median nerve by transverse carpal ligament.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

LOCAL CONTRAINDICATED
Partial or complete lack of transparency in the lens or lens capsule of the eye that can impair vision or cause blindness.
Cataract

INDICATED
Motor disorders resulting in loss of muscle control.
Cerebral Palsy

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Cognitive disorder resulting in personality disintergration, disorientation, and general loss of cognitive abilities.
Dementia

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Mood disorder resulting in deep sadness, despair, pessimism, low self-esteem, withdrawal from personal contact, decreased energy, sleep and eating disturbances.
Depression

INDICATED
Inflammation of the brain caused by disease, hemorrhage, poisoning or other conditions.
Encephalitis

CONTRAINDICATED
Caused by injury to upper brachial plexus, resulting in paralysis of the arm.
Erb's Palsy

INDICATED
Elevated pressure within one or both eyes caused by an obstruction of the outflow of aqueous humor.
Glaucoma

INDICATED
Rapidly progressive peripheral nerve paralysis.
Guillain-Barre' Syndrome

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Degeneration of motor neurons resulting in weakness and muscle atrophy of hands, forearms, legs.
Lou Gehrig's Disease

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Progressive deterioration of the retinal maculae.
Mascular Degeneration

INDICATED
Infection or inflammation of the meninges.
Meningitis

CONTRAINDICATED
Autoimmune disorder that causes destruction of the myelin sheaths.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

CONTRAINDICATED DURING FLARE-UPS
Autoimmune disorder resulting in loss or impairment of ACh receptors.
Myasthenia Gravis

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Nerve Impingement.
Nerve Compression

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Dysfunction caused by pressure from adjacent soft tissues.
Nerve Entrapment

INDICATED
Degeneration of the PNS.
Neuropathy

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Anxiety disorder characterized by emotionally constricted mannerisms that are overly conventional and rigid.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

INDICATED
Loss of muscle function and/or sensation due to injury, illness or poisoning.
Paralysis

INDICATED
Progressive neurological disease caused by destruction of dopamine-producing neurons and depletion of dopamine.
Parkinson's Disease

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Inflammation of the conjunctiva of the eye caused by infection, allergy or debris.
Pinkeye

CONTRAINDICATED
Infectious disease caused by one of three viruses.
Poliomyelitis (Polio)

INDICATED
Complex disorder affecting limbs; caused by trauma.
Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy (RSD)

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Caused by inflammation of the sciaic nerve.
Sciatica

INDICATED
Presence of abnormal and irregular discharges of cerebral electrical activity.
Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)

INDICATED
Congenital defect, involves lack of bone development in the lamina (Posterior vertebra arch).
Spina Bifida

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
A blockage of cerebral blood vessels, resulting in ischemia of brain tissue.
Stroke

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT
Use of a mood or behavior-altering substance that results in distress or impairment.
Substance Abuse

INDICATED
Caused by compression of the brachial nerve, often between clavicle and first rib.
Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (TOS)

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT IF CAUSED BY NERVE COMPRESSION
Excruciating episodic pain in the areas supplied by the trigeminal nerve, or cranial nerve (V).
Trigeminal Neuralgia

PHYSICIAN'S CONSENT IF SYMPTOMS ARE SEVERE