Test 2.2

Front 1

Major biochemical pathways and minor/intermediate pathways

Back 1

The pathways bacteria take to produce energy through the transfer of hydrogen atoms from one compound to another through oxidation and reduction reactions, which eventually produce ATP molecules.

Front 2

Major Biochemical pathways for energy production

Back 2

Fermentation, aerobic respiration, and Anaerobic respiration.

Front 3

Fermentation

Back 3

Enzymatic degradation/breakdown of carbohydrates (i.e glucose) in which the final electron acceptor (H atom acceptor) is an organic molecule (i.e. pyruvic acid). No electron transport chain, incomplete oxidation of glucose.

Front 4

Aerobic respiration

Back 4

enzymatic degradation/breakdown of carbohydrates (glucose) in which the final electron acceptor (H atom acceptor) is O2 and glucose is completely oxidized, end product is water.

Front 5

Anaerobic respiration

Back 5

Enzymatic degradation/breakdown of carbohydrates in which the final electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule other than O2 (i.e. SO4, or NO3) at the bottom of the electron transport chain. Makes H2S.O.4 and H.N.O3. End product is acid.

Front 6

Minor Intermediate biochemical pathways for energy production

Back 6

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, transitional step, electron transport chain, one additional step.

Front 7

Fermentation characteristics

Back 7

No electron transport chain. 2 ATP is synthesized by substrate level phosphorylation. Oxygen is not required. Occurs in both aerobic systems (Humans), and anaerobic systems (i.e skeletal muscles). Most energy remains in the end product. Incomplete oxidation of glucose. NADH molecules are not utilized for energy. `

Front 8

Porducts of bacterial fermentation of pyruvic acid (fermenters)

Back 8

Propionic acid, butyric acid, acetaldehyde and ethyl alcohol, lactic acid, mixed acid fermenters, and butanediol (acetoin) fermentation.

Front 9

Propionic acid fermenters

Back 9

pyruvate breaks down into propionic acid and carbon dioxide. Involved in swiss cheese production: this acid gives it its smell and taste, the carbon dioxide gives the holes.

Front 10

Butyric acid fermenters (i.e Clostridium species)

Back 10

Pyruvate breaks down into butyric acid. Gives rancid butter and vommit its odor.

Front 11

Acetaldehyde and Ethyl alcohol fermenters

Back 11

Pyruvate releases carbon dioxide before turning to acetaldehyde which then turns to ehtanol. formation of drinking alcohol (ethanol) + carbon dioxide. Includes Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Front 12

Lactic acid fermenters

Back 12

Homolatic bacteria (produce mainly lactic acid). Are responsible for pickling.

Front 13

Mixed acid fermenters (large amounts of acids)

Back 13

Lactic acid, Acetic acid and ethanol (neutral), Succinic acid, formic acid + H2 (increase) + carbon dioxide (increase). This pathway results in 4-acidic products and 1 neutral product. Methyl red test (M.R. test) test for large amounts of acids. Escherichia coli (has positive methyl red test).

Front 14

Butanediol (Butyleneglycol) fermentation (Acetoin)

Back 14

neutral end product. Includes all mixed acid fermentation pathways plus an additional reaction. Pyruvate turns to alpha acetolactate which turns to acetylmethylcarbinol (Acetoin) which goes back and forth to butandiol. Uses Voges-Proskauer test (VP test; test for neutral end product Acetoin). Includes Enterobacter aerogenes (has positive VP test)

Front 15

Aerobic respiration characteristics

Back 15

Uses 4 minor pathways: glycolysis, transitional step, Krebs cycle, and Electron transport system. End products: 6 carbon dioxides, 2 H2O, 38 ATP's. Final electron acceptor is oxygen. Involves a complete electron transport chain, all energy in glucose molecule is released. Used 1 glucose + 6 C.O2 to produce end products.

Front 16

Glycolysis results from aerobic respiration

Back 16

Total net gain of 8-ATP molecules: 2-ATP's (net gain) from substrate level phosphorylation, 6-ATP's from oxidative phosphorylation (2 NADH).

Front 17

Transitional step for aerobic respiration

Back 17

2- Acetyl-CoA molecules made from 2- Pyruvates. 2 C.O2 released (decarboxylation). 2 NADH produced (Oxidative phosphorylation), resulting in a total of 6 ATP's. Second step in aerobic respiration.

Front 18

Kreb cycle

Back 18

Third step in areobic respiration. 1st reation: Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetic acid form citric acid. Citric acid goes through a series of reactions known as the citric acid or kreb cycle. Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated. Decarboxylation occurs (resulting in 4 C.O2's), Substrate level phosphorylation occurs (resulting in 2 ATP's), Oxidative phosporylation occurs (resulting in 6 NADH and 2 FADH).

Front 19

Electron transport system

Back 19

Coenzymes N.A.D and F.A.D transport hydrogen atoms as NADH and FADH2 here. Will have as many as 4 cytochromes in aerobic respiration. At the end of the cytochrome chain system, electrons are passed to oxygen which becomes negatively charged, attracts hydrogen's from FADH2 and forms water.

Front 20

Anaerobic respiration

Back 20

Involves glycolysis, transitional step, krebs cycle, electron transport system minor pathways. Glucose is completely oxidized to 6 carbon dioxides, H.N.O3, H2S.O4, and energy (ATP's). Final hydrogen acceptor is an inorganic substance other than free O2 (i.e. N.O3,S.O4, C.O3). Energy gain is variable due to lesser cytochromes. Final end product is acids (i.e. H2S.O4, H.N.O3).

Front 21

Semi conservative respiration

Back 21

DNA helicase unzips DNA at end. DNA polymerase connect adjacent nucleotides. DNA ligase connect small fragments of DNA. Consist of continuous and discontinuous methods.

Front 22

Transcription

Back 22

the first step of gene expression. RNA synthesis. 3 steps: initiation step, elongation step, and termination step.

Front 23

Initiation step

Back 23

DNA unwraps in middle (not end).

Front 24

Elongation step

Back 24

RNA ploymerase finds, collects, transports, and connects adjacent nucleotides of RNA molecules.

Front 25

Termination step

Back 25

RNA polymerases hits terminal site. Result: m-RNA finishes and is released from DNA sense strand. DNA returns to a double helix.

Front 26

Prokaryotic cells transcription and translation

Back 26

Transcription and translation occur simultaneously. Uses polycistronic messages (1 messenger RNA represents many protein enzymes). Ribosome attaches to m-RNA during transcription at promoter site and begins translation

Front 27

Eukaryotic cells transcription and translation

Back 27

Transcription occurs first. No polycistronic messangers. m-RNA must travel through cytoplasm to reach ribosome.

Front 28

Codon

Back 28

represents 3 purines or pyrimidine bases that is specific for a specific amino acid; located on m-RNA. 1 start (AUG; never changes), 3 Stop (i.e UAA, UAG, UGA). 64 total possible.

Front 29

Degeneracy of genetic code

Back 29

More than 1 codon equals the same amino acid; we have more codons than amino acids.

Front 30

Translation

Back 30

Process of translating sequences of codons (m-RNA) into sequences of amino acids of a protein. 90% of total energy (ATP's) are used for this process. Involves ribosomes, making enzymes, and 3 types of RNA: m-RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA.

Front 31

Characteristics of transfer RNA

Back 31

Function to transfer/carry specific amino acids. A decoder of condons (i.e anticodons), one of these carries 1 specific amino acid.Charged one have amino acids attached. Uncharged one have no amino acids attached.

Front 32

Aminoglycosides

Back 32

antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis (i.e. tetracycline which blocks t-RNA from entering ribosome)

Front 33

Why microbes are ideally suited to demonstrate principles of biology

Back 33

1) easy to grow (take up little space) 2) economic 3) reproduce quickly 4) physiology (biochem.) same as higher plants and animals.

Front 34

Genetic heredity

Back 34

the study of heredity. Represents the transfer of genetic information (genes: nitrogen bases on DNA) from one generation to another.

Front 35

Gregor Mendel

Back 35

father of genetics. Developed punnet square.

Front 36

Phenotype

Back 36

Traits; The entire physical biochemical and physiological characteristics of an organism. This is easier to change because it is influenced by the environment and genotype. Examples: chromogenesis, spore formation, dimorphism, and change in hair color. This is the expression of genotype.

Front 37

Dimorphism

Back 37

2 different structures related to environment, typical of pathogenic fungi.

Front 38

Genotype

Back 38

the entire genetic make up of an organism (genes).

Front 39

Changes in genotype

Back 39

mutation and recombination (sexual conjugation)

Front 40

Mutation

Back 40

Spontaneous mutation and induced mutations

Front 41

Spontaneous mutations

Back 41

mutation that occurs for no apparent reason. Rate: 10 ^-6 power, 1 in a million genes will have a mutation, or 1 cell in a million will have a mutation. Occurs most often during semi conservative replication (the more bases the more chances for mistakes).

Front 42

Induced mutations

Back 42

Caused mutations, artificially stimulated. Rate= 1:100 or 1:1000 genes will be mutated. Can be caused by UV light, and chemicals like nitrous acid which induce mutations.

Front 43

Spontaneous and induced mutations

Back 43

Occur by changing bases (on DNA) or sequences of bases.

Front 44

Base substitution

Back 44

Point mutation. Substitutes 1 base for another. An incorrect purine or pyrimidine base that is incorporated during DNA synthesis. 1 of these can stop protein synthesis, most mutations (99.99%) are lethal.

Front 45

Base addition

Back 45

Extra base is added. Causes reading frame shift of RNA to change. Amino acid chains will not function.

Front 46

Insertion

Back 46

Adding an entire piece of DNA, which is at least the size of the smallest gene (which is 606 bases).

Front 47

Causes of induced mutations

Back 47

chemical mutagens, base analogs, radiation.

Front 48

Chemical mutagens

Back 48

chemicals that cause mutations (i.e nitrous acid causes A to pair with C creating a shift in the hydrogen bonds). Creates an A-C ratio throughout the DNA.

Front 49

Base analogs

Back 49

Compounds that resemble naturally occurring bases, but have different base pairing characteristics. Bromourical.

Front 50

Radiation

Back 50

Includes ionizing and non ionizing.

Front 51

Ionizing radiation

Back 51

gamma rays, x-rays, cause free radicals that shift bases and cause mutations.

Front 52

Non ionizing radiation

Back 52

UV light. Lethal wave length= 260 nano meters.