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265 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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hypothesis
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explanation formulated to answer the questions being investigated.
1. identify problem 2. ask questions 3. form ... |
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scientific method
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1. identify problem
2. ask questions 3. hypothesis development 4. data collection and experiment 5. analysis 6. conclusion |
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data collection
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observing with 5 senses, measurement to collect quantitative data, samples, organization,
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experimentation
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compares control group and experiment group. has independent and dependent variable
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analysis
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reliable data and if it supports hypothesis
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deductive reasoning
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method where conclusions follow from general principles
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inductive reasoning
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method of arriving at general principles from specific facts
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human body hierarchy
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atoms - molecules - cells- tissues- organs - organ systems- organism
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epithelial tissue
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functions to cover or produce secretions. depends on diffusion from capillaries for food and oxygen. Regenerates easily. Simple or stratified. Squamous, cuboidal, or columnar cells.
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connective tissue
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connects structures of body, usually has own blood supply, except ligaments. Types: Bone, cartilage, adipose, and blood vessels
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Muscle tissue
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produces movement. 3 types: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
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Skeletal muscle tissue
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Voluntary, connected to bones
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Cardiac muscle tissue
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Involuntary, heart muscle
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Smooth muscle tissue
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Involuntary, found in walls of hollow organs such as intestines, blood vessels, bladder, and uterus
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Nervous tissue
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structure for brain, spinal cord, and nerves
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nerves
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made of neurons that send electrical impulses
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myelin cells
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help protect nervous tissue
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endocrine system
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hormones influence blood pressure
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urinary system
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helps regulate blood volume and pressure by adjusting urine volume
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nervous system
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controls blood pressure, heart rate, and blood distribution to body
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estrogen
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in women helps preserve vascular health
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integumentary system
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allows heat to escape by dilating superficial blood vessels
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anus
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expels non digested food
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small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
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absorbs nutrients
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large intestine
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removes water
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liver
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produces bile to breakdown fats
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pancreas
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delivers enzymes that break down food to small intestine
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GI tract
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increased skeletal muscle activity increases motility of
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Endocrine system
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controls body functions. Glands secrete hormone through blood to organs. Pineal, pituitary, thalamus, hypothalamus, thyroid, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testis, and ovaries.
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nervous system
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controls secretion of hormones from pituitary glands
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Integumentary system
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skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nails. Protects internal tissues from injury, waterproofs body, and helps regulate body temp, barrier to pathogens
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Lymphatic system
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picks up excess fluid from skin to avoid swelling
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endocrine hormones
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regulate hair growth and hydration
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urinary system
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activates vitamin D for calcium absorption into bone
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nervous system
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regulates sweat production, interprets stimuli, and adjusts blood vessel diameter
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lymphatic system
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lymph nodes, lymph vessels, lymoh, spleen, thymus, tonsils. Supports immune system by transporting white blood cells to and from nodes. Returns leaked fluid from circulatory back to blood vessels
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urinary system
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help lymphatic functioning by maintaining water/acid-base/electrolyte balance of blood.
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acidic
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secretions in reproductive and integumentary systems prevent bacteria growth
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muscular system
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skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments. Doesnt include cardiac and smooth muscles.
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ligaments
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attach bones together forming joins
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tendons
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connect muscles to bones
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endocrine system
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hormones regulate neuron activity
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urinary system
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disposes metabolic wastes and maintains proper electrolyte balance for proper nerve function
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reproductive system
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testes, penis, ovaries, vagina, breasts. Men produce sperm, women produce eggs/ova. Organs also house hormones that encourage or supress activities in body and influence feminine or masculine body characteristics
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respiratory
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rate increases during pregnancy
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respiratory system
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supplies cells with oxygen and removes CO2. Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli.
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arterioles
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in alveoli walls oxygen and co2 move in and out via...
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nervous system
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regulates breathing rate and depth
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skeletal system
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supports and protects body and organs. Supplies framework that creates movement in conjunction with muscles. Bones, cartilage, ligament, and joints.
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Endocrine
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hormones regulate growth and release of calcium
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digestive system
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provides nutrients need for bone mineralization
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muscular system
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places stress on bones during exercise which increases deposit of calcium into bones
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cardiovascular system
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supplies oxygen and nutrients while removing wastes (lactic acid)
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urinary system
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maintains water and electrolyte balance, regulates acid-base balance in blood, and removes nitrogen containing wastes
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electrolytes
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sodium, chloride, and potassium
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nitrogen wastes
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by products of protein and nucleic acid breakdowns
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endocrine system
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regulates reabsorption of water and electrolytes in kidneys
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liver
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synthesizes urea that is excreted by kidneys
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adaptation
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recieve, interpret, and respond to internal and external stimula via nervous system
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circulation
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transports oxygen and nutrients to tissues via cardiovascular system
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elimination
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remove metabolic wastes from body via renal system
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locomotion
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allow voluntary and involuntary movement of body via musculoskeletal and neurological systems
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nutrition
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take in and break down nutrients to be used for metabolism via digestive system
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oxygenation
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take in oxygen and expel CO2 via respiratory system
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regulation
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hormonal control of body functions via endocrine system
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self duplication
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production of offspring via reproductive system
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Central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system
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cranial and spinal nerves that extend beyond CNS. Divided into autonomic and sensory/somatic.
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autonomic nervous system
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division of PNS. automatic body functions. Has sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves.
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Sympathetic nerves
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active when excited or scared
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parasympathetic nerves
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active at rest or eating
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sensory/somatic nervous system
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Division of PNS. Has 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and associated ganglia. Controls voluntary actions
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Nerve cells
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has dendrites that recieve stimuli and bring stimuli to neurons for interpretation. Has axon to connect to another over a synapse
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Synapse
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fluid filled gap
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Sensory function
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feels heat, pain, and other stimuli. Face, fingers, and toes are more sensitive because of more neurons. Reflexes
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Motor function
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Carry impulses from CNS to effectors (glands and muscles)
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Integrative function
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uses sensory info to make decisions with memories
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Alimentary canal
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mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, anus
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accessory structures
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teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
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GI tract
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stomach and intestines
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peristalsis
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contractions that propel food to colon and anus occurs in GI tract
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salivary amylase
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enzyme from parotid gland, begins chemical digestion of carbs
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mucus
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secreted by cells in stomach lining for lubrication
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protease
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secreted by cells in stomach to begin protein digestion
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stomach lining
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cells secrete mucus, protease, HCl, and intrinsic factor
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intrinsic factor
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secreted by cells in stomach lining to increase stomach absorption of vitamin b12
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villi
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absorbs nutrients in small intestine. contains arterioles and lymphatic vessels through with absorption occurs. increases surface area
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microvilli
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increases surface area in small intestine
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Immune system
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tissues, cells, and organs that fight illness and disease
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Innate defenses
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Nonspecific. 1st and 2nd line of defense.
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First line of defense
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Physical and chemical barriers. Such as skin, mucous membranes, and digestive enzymes
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Second line of defense
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Fever, inflammation, phagocytosis, natural killer cells, interferons, chemotaxis, cytokines, diapedesis, followed by cellular adhesion molecules guiding WBCs to site of infection/damage
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Natural killer cells
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produce perforins, pore forming proteins, that target cancer cells and virus causing cells to lyse or rupture
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Interferons
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prevent virus replication after 7-10 days and activate macrophages and NK cells
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chemotaxis
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WBCs respond to damaged tissue
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cytokines
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chemical messengers released by damaged tissues
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diapedesis
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process of WBCs squeezing through capillary slits in response to cytokines
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Adaptive reponses
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3rd line of defense. Specific.
antibody mediated (active/passive immunity), or cell mediated immunity |
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antibody mediated immunity
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antibodies are produced for specific antigen. Antigen binds to B cells then T helper cells. Activates B cell to produce antibodies. Active/passive immunity
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active immunity
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vaccine that stimulates an infection by pathogen, stimulating body to produce antibodies for future protection
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Passive immunity
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receives antibodies from another source (breast milk)
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Cell mediated immunity
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T cells recognize nonself cells. Macrophages capture nonself cell, T helper binds to it and secretes cytokine to signal cytotoxic T cell which responds through chemotaxis and destroys it.
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Fertility rates
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average number of children a woman will have during child bearing years. (15-44)
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Population growth and decline
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difference between populations birth and death and # of people immigrate or emigrate
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crude birth rate
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number of births/ 1000 ppl per year
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crude death rate
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number of deaths per 1000 people per year
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Domain
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Archea, Eubacteria, eukarya
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kingdom
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Animalia, fungi, plantae, protista, eubacteria, archaebacteria
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eukarya domain
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animalia, fungi, plantae, protista kingdoms make up
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Eubacteria domain
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eubacteria kingdom makes up
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Archaea domain
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archaebacteria kingdom makes up
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charles darwin
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wrote On the Origin of Species about species adaptation
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natural selection
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survival of the fittest
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genes
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stretches of DNA on a chromosome that provides info for an organisms characteristics. Responsible for heredity
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Nucleic acids
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store and transmit hereditary info. Chain of nucleotides that consist of a pentose, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
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Pentose
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type of sugar
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Phosphate group
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molecule in backbone of DNA and RNA that links adjoining bases together
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Nitrogenous base
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molecule found in DNA and RNA that encodes genetic info in cells. Adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil
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Purine
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adenine and guanine
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Pyrimidines
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Thymine (uracil) and cytosine
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DNA
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has double helix
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RNA
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has single strand
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transcription
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copy DNA instructions to RNA and sends messenger RNA to ribosomes
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translation
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ribosomes make protein from DNA instructions and send out to entire cells
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Prokaryotic cell
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Eubacteria and archaebacteria. Has cell wall, cytoplasm, organells, plasmids, nucleoid, ribosomes, flagella and or pill,
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Nucleoid
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found in prokaryotic cell. Condensed DNA of the cell. contains genes and blueprints to form proteins
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plasmids
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small portions of DNA
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ribosomes
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Make proteins from RNA messages
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Eukaryotic cell
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Complex. Eukarya domain
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endoplasmic reticulum
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tubular transport network. Responsible for moving proteins from one part of cell to another and moving proteins to outside of cell (secretion)
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Smooth ER
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important for numerous metabolic processes
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Rough ER
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studded with ribosomes
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Golgi apparatus
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packaging and transport proteins in cell. Refines proteins manufactured by ribosomes, sorts and prepares for transport or secretion, and works with ER in protein movement and processing
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Vesicles
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small membrane bounded savs used to transport proteins or substances in or out of cell. Vacuoles, lysosome, or peroxisome
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Vacuoles
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storage unit of cell
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lysosome
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contains digestive enzymes capable of disposing cell debris and worn parts
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peroxisome
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rid body of toxic components (such as hydrogen peroxide). Major sites of oxygen use and energy production. (many found in liver bc of toxic buildup)
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mitochondria
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produce ATP. Enzymes in cristae converts sugar to atp
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cristae
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series of folds in mitochondria
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microtubules
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cellular tracks form mitotic spindle which helps organize and segregate chromosomes during cell division
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Centrosomes
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microtubule organizing centers that help form and organize mitotic spindle during mitosis
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Nucleus
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enclosed by double membrane with pores. Control center of cell because it contains cells genetic material and directs cells activities
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Nucleolus
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small body in nucleus produces ribosomes
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chloroplasts
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organelles containing chlorophyll, similar to mitochondria
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chlorophyll
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allows capture of sunlight to be used for production of glucose during photosynthesis
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vacuoles
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in plant cell, is storage unit and larger, contains water to maintain pressure
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protein
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chain of amino acids
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cell differentiation
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produces a more specialized cell from a less specialized
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embryo
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animal or plant in early stages of development after fertilization
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zygote
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fertilized egg begins dividing and becomes mass of cells
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stem cells
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cells remain undifferentiated. totipotent, pluripotent, or multipotent
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mitosis
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cell duplication which 2 daughter cells receive exact same nuclear material as original cell. Occurs to replace old and dying cells
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. |
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Interphase
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occurs prior to mitosis. S phase, g1, g2
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S phase
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first phase of interphase. DNA double helix unwinds and exposed bases pair with new complementary bases and synthesized into new complementary strand with help of DNA polymerase. 2 new strands formed
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G1
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DNA unwinds to expose bases, RNA bases pair with their complementary partners on DNA to form mRNA strand. Once entire gene is copied mRNA exits nuclus to ribosome
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G2
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continued protein synthesis and cell growth in preparation for cell division.
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Prophase
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spindle fibers form and centrioles move to opposite sides of cell. Nuclear membrane disappears
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Metaphase
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chromosomes align midway along spindle fibers
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Anaphase
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chromosomes begin to separate from their daughters. Cytokinesis occurs (separates 2 sets of chromosomes into different cells)
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Telophase
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Identical sets of chromosomes aare at opposite ends of the cell. Spindle fibers disappear, nuclear membranes reappear, and cytokinesis completes.
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Meiosis
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Half number of chromosomes
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Diploid cells
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contains 2 sets of chromosomes. All cells except gametes (in mammals). Each individual chromosome has a twin.(homologous)
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Haploid cells
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Cells contain single set of chromosomes, usually only gametes
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gamete
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cells that form a new organism via sexual reproduction
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Prophase I
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Homologous chromosomes condense and link in the process forming tetrad. Allows crossing over or recombination
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Meiosis
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Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II, metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
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Metaphase I
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Homologous chromosomes move to metaphase plate
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Anaphase I
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Homologous chromosomes separate, but sister chromatids stay together
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Telophase I
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Cytokinesis has occured and 2 haploid daughter cells result
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Prophase II
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Spindle fibers reappear and centrioles move to opposite poles
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Metaphase II
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Sister chromatids align at new metaphase plate
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Anaphase II
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sister chromatids separate again
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Telophase II
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4 haploid cells result after cytokinesis
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photosynthesis
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energy from sun is trapped by chlorophyll and used for synthesis of glucose
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autotroph
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organism that produces its own food
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cellular respiration
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glucose broken down in glycolysis, end products are fed into citric acid cycle. Carried out by mitochondria
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heterotrophs
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organisms cant produce own food
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Codon
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piece of gene composed of 3 of the bases. There are 64 because of different 3 letter combinations that can be formed from A, T, C, G
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amino acid
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matches to specific codon. 20 different. Chains form proteins
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Protein
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one matches to one gene. Responsible for expression of genetic traits
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genome
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complete set of DNA for an individual that contains all genes
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Mutations
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occur by either errors during DNA replication or mutagen
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mismatch repair
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finds mismatch in DNA and removes incorrect base
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excision repair
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mechanisms inspect DNA for damages(caused by chemicals or UV rays) then cuts defective strand, removes mutated and near bases, and allows DNA polymerase to make new.
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Germ cells
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Reproductive cells that give rise to sperm and ovum. Mutations can only pass to future generations if its in DNA
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Phenotypes
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Physical expression of genetic traits (body characteristics, colors..etc)
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Genotypes
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organisms underlying genetic makeup blueprint for building structures within cells of body
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Punnett square
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shows all possible combinations of alleles given the 2 parents' genotypes
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Heterozygous
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Tt
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Homozygous
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TT
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incomplete dominance
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When dominant and recessive genotypes interact to produce an intermediate phenotype, a mix of 2 traits
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Light years
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distance light will travel with in one year
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Electromagnetic waves
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waves of radiation that are characterized by electric and magnetic fields
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Wavelength spectrum
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(short to long): Gamma ray, xray, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwave, and radiowaves
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Visible spectrum
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(long to short):red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
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work
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results of any change in energy
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kinetic energy
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amount of energy associated with an objects motion
=1/2mv^2 |
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potential energy
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amount of stored energy in an object
=mgh |
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law of conservation of energy
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energy is not lost but transferred back and forth between kinetic and potential energy
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matter
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anything that takes up space and has mass
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mass
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quantity of matter an object has
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elements
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substances that cant be broken into simpler types of matter
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atom
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smallest part of an element that still retains all the original properties of the element
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proton
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positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom
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atomic number
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number of protons in a nucleus of an atom
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chemical reaction
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dynamic event that alters the chemical makeup of an atom, may cause imbalance of protons or electrons
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ion
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chemical reaction produces a positively or negatively charged atom
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ion
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chemical reaction produces a positively or negatively charged atom
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mass number
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total number of protons and neutrons found in nucleus of an atom
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atomic mass
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average mass of all known isotopes of an element
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isotopes
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atoms with same number of protons but with different numbers of neutrons
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Catalysts
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control rate of chemical reactions, or reactions in which atoms react to come to a stable state
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Substrate
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molecular surface acted upon by enzyme
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activation energy
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lowering; increases reaction rate
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Gregor Mendeleev
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designed first periodic table
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Henry mosely
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modified periodic table arranged by atomic number
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orbital shells
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arrangements of electrons with in orbits around nucleus
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valence electrons
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electrons in outermost shell of atom
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ionization energy
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energy required to completely remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion. Increase from left to right across period (decreasing atomic radii)
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electronegativity
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measure of an atoms attraction on electrons in a chemical bond. Greater... , the greater the attraction for bonding electrons
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metals
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elements that donate highly conductive electrons to their environment
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metalloids
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found next to stairstep line, have transitional properties between metals and nonmetals
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alkali
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first column. donates one electron available for chemical bonding
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alkali earth
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2nd column. donates 2 electrons for chemical bonding
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halogen
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7th column, accepts one electron for bonding
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noble gases
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8th column, resistant due to full outer shells
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enzymes
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catalysts for reactions. Found as protein molecules in body tissue
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pH
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measure of hydrogen ion concentration
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metabolic pathways
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chemical reactions with in a cell
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ionic
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electrical attraction between ions of opposite charges
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covalent
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sharing of electrons between atom
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hydrocarbons
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methane, propane, and butane
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saturated hydrocarbons
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alkanes, basic structure. carbon is completely connected
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unsaturated hydrocarbons
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have one, double or triple bonds between carbon atoms
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alkenes
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unsaturated hydrocarbons have one double bond
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alkynes
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unsaturated hydrocarbons have triple bonds
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organic chemistry
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connected with study of hydrocarbon structure
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metalloids
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elements that may accept or donate electrons readily and possess a mix of metallic and nonmetallic properties
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cation
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positive ion (usually metallic)
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anion
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negative ion (usually nonmetallic)
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electronegativity
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similar attractions for electrons
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Lewis structures
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provides visual representation of covalent bonding between atoms of a molecule
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reactants
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formulas on left side of reaction side are substances consumed/altered in reaction
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products
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right side of reaction side. Results of reaction
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subscripts
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small numbers indicate how many atoms of that element. If none present there is one atom
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oxidation
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involves electron donation to produce a more positive ion
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reduction
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involves electron acceptance to produce a more negative ion
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oxidation reduction reaction
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ex. combustion, photosynthesis and metabolism
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water
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polar molecule of H and O
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polar molecule
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possesses both positive and negative atomic structure
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density
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ratio of mass per volume for a substance
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celcius
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defined at standard pressure, by melting point of ice and boiling point of water
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kelvin
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standardized by triple point of water
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triple point
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temperature and pressure at which water will coexist as a solid, liquid, and gas
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specific heat
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energy required to raise one unit of mass of a substance by 1*C
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heat of vaporization
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amount of heat needed to cause a phase transition between a liquid and a gas
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solid
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fixed shape and volume. may have crystalline order (atoms arranged in highly ordered state) or can lack true order. High pressures and low temperatures
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Liquid
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fixed volume and changing shape. High temperature and high pressure. Amorphorous or crystalline form
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Gas
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changing volume and shape. High temperature and low pressure
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Latent heat
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related to energy needed to cause a phase transition at a fixed temp
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Liquid to gas
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transition requires addition of heat through evaporation or vaporization
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Gas to liquid
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needs subtraction of heat through condensation
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evaporation
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high heat, low humidity, and fast movement of surrounding air mass. Occurs by physical collisions at surface layer of a liquid, removes fast moving liquid molecules, removing more energetic atoms, cooler system.
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vaporization
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liquid to gas breaks physical bond with in liquid
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condensation
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gas to liquid. creates physical bonds in gas
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