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47 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Consilience
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Modern views understand that each branch of knowledge studies a subset of reality that depends on factors studied in other branches. Consilience is thus often used as an argument for scientific realism by philosophers of science.
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Herschel
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believed that 'good scientific method' was based off of experimentation and inductive reasoning
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X-ray crystallography
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a method of determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal, in which a beam of X-rays strikes a crystal and scatters into many different directions
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Correlation of parts
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mid 1800s Cuvier's principle of correlation- you can't change one part of the system without changing the system as a whole relates to paleontology- the number, direction, and shape of the bones that compose each part of an animal's body are always in a necessary relation to all the other parts, in such a way that - up to a point - one can infer the whole from any one of them and vice versa. The basic concept is central to comparative anatomy and paleontology.
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Thomas Malthus
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early 1800s- Malthus drew attention to the potential dangers of population growth. Darwin referred to Malthus as "that great philosopher", and called his own theory an application of the doctrines of Malthus in an area without the complicating factor of human intelligence.- led to "survival of the fittest"
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Uniformitarian
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assumes that the natural processes that operated in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the present. Its methodology is frequently summarized as "the present is the key to the past," because it holds that all things continue as they were from the beginning of the world.
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Progressive development
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Sedgwick- the idea that the world had a discrete start point, will have a final end, everything will develop in increasing complexities, under influence of God
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Adam Sedgwick
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-progressive development
-catastrophist (things develop quickly) -evolution supporter -mid 1800s -one of the founders of modern geology -guided the young Charles Darwin in his early study of geology, Sedgwick was an outspoken opponent of Darwin's theory of evolution by means of natural selection. |
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Robert Chambers
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mid 1800s
- wrote "The Vestiges" his own idea of evolution, wrote anonomously (critiqued by Sedgwick) -organisms change with unseen transitions |
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teleology
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the philosophical study of design and purpose. A teleological school of thought is one that holds all things to be designed for or directed toward a final result, that there is an inherent purpose or final cause for all that exists.
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Alfred Russel Wallace
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was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist. He is best known for independently proposing a theory of natural selection which prompted Charles Darwin to publish his own theory.
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Chargarff’s Rules
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Chargaff's rules state that DNA from any cell of all organisms should have a 1:1 ratio of pyrimidine and purine bases and, more specifically, that the amount of guanine is equal to cytosine and the amount of adenine is equal to thymine. This pattern is found in both strands of the DNA.
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Peter Pauling
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son of Linus Pauling, worked in Cambridge, was a spy! gave Watson and Crick little updatesies on Linus Pauling's developments on DNA
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Theory of special creation
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The belief that the origin of life and the diversity of life result from acts of God whereby each species was created separately. Evolution is implicitly rejected as the explanation of these phenomena.
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Carrie Buck
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was a plaintiff in the United States Supreme Court case Buck v. Bell 274 U.S. 200 (1927), and was ordered to undergo compulsory sterilization for purportedly being "feeble-minded" as part of the state of Virginia's eugenics program while a patient at Virginia State Colony for Epileptics and Feebleminded
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Theodosius Dobzhansky
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-noted geneticist and evolutionary biologist, and a central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the unifying modern evolutionary synthesis
-anti-eugenecist, worked under T.H. Morgan |
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T.H. Morgan
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American geneticist and embryologist. Following the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance in 1900, Morgan's research moved to the study of mutation in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. In his famous Fly Room at Columbia University Morgan was able to demonstrate that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. These discoveries formed the basis of the modern science of genetics. When he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933 he was the first person awarded the Prize in genetics, for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity
-anti-eugenicist |
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Eugenics Record Office
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at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in Cold Spring Harbor, New York was a center for eugenics and human heredity research in the first half of the twentieth century. Both its founder, Charles Benedict Davenport, and its director, Harry H. Laughlin were major contributors to the field of eugenics in the United States (and in many ways, Germany).
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Thalassophilia
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term coined by Charles Davenport to describe "love of the sea." Davenport determined that thalassophilia was a "sex limited" (x-linked) trait, because it was found only in men. Of course, he failed to take into account the fact that sons of naval officers often grew up in an environment dominated by boats and tales of the sea, or that women were prohibited from seafaring occupations throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
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Lamarckianism
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the once widely accepted idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring (also known as heritability of acquired characteristics or soft inheritance). It is named for the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), who incorporated the action of soft inheritance into his evolutionary theories and is often incorrectly cited as the founder of soft inheritance. It proposed that individual efforts during the lifetime of the organisms were the main mechanism driving species to adaptation, as they supposedly would acquire adaptive changes and pass them on to offspring.
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Jerry Donohue
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a theoretical and physical chemist. He is best remembered for steering James D. Watson and Francis Crick towards the correct structure of DNA with some crucial information- keto not enol
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Francis Galton
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- created positive eugenics
- first to apply statistics to intellegence, created concept of normal distribution |
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Positive eugenics
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encouraging reproduction by persons presumed to have inheritable desirable traits
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Anti-miscegenation laws
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laws that banned interracial marriage and sometimes interracial sex between whites and members of other races
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influences of Charles Lyell on Charles Darwin
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-Lyell wrote "principles of geology" discusses uniformitarian beliefs
-transformed Darwin from a catastrophist to uniformitarian Darwin accepted Lyell's work, in large part, because it helped him to validate his own beliefs. There were other geological studies that undermined Darwin's ideas, but he chose not to accept them. Lyell himself, ironically, was reluctant to accept Darwin's model of evolution because he did not see evidence to support it |
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Explain how the ideology of separate spheres provides important context for the lack of women in science, historically.
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The characteristics of true manhood and womanhood and the separate spheres of male and female activity were believed to have a biological basis.
-Female nurturance, intuitive morality, domesticity, passivity, and delicacy -male rationality, aggressiveness, independence, and toughness were all due to their physical makeup. -the visual evidence that women were generally physically smaller than men. -women were deemed more delicate and weak than men because the female nervous system was finer, more irritable, and more prone to overstimulation and fatigue than the males |
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Why would Darwin have thought being a clergyman would be a good idea, given his interest in natural history?
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...
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What were the primary critiques of evolutionary theories dependent on ‘blind law’?
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-people thought that theory of evolution was unguided law
-could not lead to complex adaptations -people believed it was scientifically inaccurate, and religiously offensive |
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What puzzles lead Darwin to consider the possibility of evolution?
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-time: because of the extinct giant sloth why would god let a giant sloth go extinct and then create the same creature but smaller
-space: in Africa, found common rhea (bird), 2 different species that live close to each other, but why don't they cross boundaries? -geology, and man |
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How did Darwin “discover” natural selection?
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-evidence from puzzles
-he read Malthus, wrote about competition of society, survival of the fittest |
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Did Darwin envision evolution as being a linear or a branching process? What is the difference?
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-branching
-lots of different species coming from common ancestors with lots of variation -contrasted with Lamarck's linear belief that species become more complex but over a specific pathway, no variation (african americans would be on different ladder than caucasians) |
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Why was “the problem of man” not a barrier to Darwin, when it came to considering evolution?
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- on his voyage he was able to see how people treated other races, and how they could be treated like animals
- saw Fujians act like animals, he was able to view people as animals and that we have evolved from animals |
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What was Huxley’s criticism of Darwin’s use of the analogy to artificial selection?
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- he said that if there is only one mutation that it would disappear quickly
- there must be large variation not many small variations - couldn't base natural selection on domesticated artifical selection |
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Did all who accept evolution accept natural selection? Why or why not?
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-no!
- people who did not accept evolution at all, because of religious or philisophical beliefs -people who accept evolution disaggreed with natural selection because large variation would be necessary |
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What problem did physicists’ calculation of the age of the earth pose for Darwin and why?
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-they calculated lifespan of the earth to be too short
-said to be 95 million years -Darwin approximated 300 million years to account for small variation over long period of time |
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What problem did geographical distribution pose for the theory of special creation and why is this important in understanding Lyell, Hooker, and Wallace’s response to Darwin?
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- creationist theory is that species are specially designed for their environment
- Darwin discovered that species were able to invade and take over environments that they were not made for |
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Was the “entire church” and “all of religion” against Darwin? Explain your answer.
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-no!
-people could be religious and still believe in evolution and not support natural selection -scientists can be religious too! -weren't completely against, but over time better accepted in the church |
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What skills and background knowledge did Francis Crick and James Watson each bring to the table when trying to figure out the structure of DNA?
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Watson- consilient, looked at broader picture, brought small bits of information, good at finding everything he needed to know
Crick- very scientific and smart, scientific connections |
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What criticisms of Watson’s portrayal of Rosalind Franklin does Anne Sayre raise, and why might they be relevant to reading The Double Helix?
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- turns Rosalind into a character, "Rosy"
-makes up things and lies -said she wore glasses (she didn't), said she did not put effort into appearance, never wore lipstick, was a "blue stocking worker" -he exaggerated Rosalind's character, he could have exaggerated other parts of the novel |
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Describe three characteristics traditionally attributed to scientists that Watson’s book seems to undermine, and explain how his account undermines them.
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honesty: often did not give credit to other scientists, stole things, using Peter to spy on Linus, taking Rosalind's research without
patience: rushed in research scholarly rational -selfish |
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What concerns did critics raise regarding Watson’s recent comments on race and intelligence?
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Describe three pieces of evidence obtained by Watson and Crick that were crucial to their discovery of the structure of DNA, and explain how each piece contributed to the discovery.
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-Rosalind's crystollagraphy images, water content
-Chargaff's rules of proportions (pyrimadines and purines) -Donahue claim that base structure had to be in keto form instead of enol form becuase it is more stable. |
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Describe the social and scientific origins of the eugenics movement.
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scientific: Mendel (heredity laws), Galton (founder of eugenics), Darwin (evolution)
social: urbanization, immigration (immigration from europe, caused competition for jobs, formed militant labor unions possible the beginnings of revolution), poverty (people did not want government spending money on the poor) |
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Describe the three major policies either put into place or justified on eugenic grounds.
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Sterilization Laws:
Anti-Miscegenation Laws: Immigration Laws: |
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Describe the major critiques of the eugenics movement.
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-T.H. Morgan- how is one able to define certain traits, you can't say genotype is responsible for phenotype
-genetic criticisms: hard to identify, define, categorize traits, can't be determined by genes could be environment. -race: argument of multiple races, impossible to rank race, can't relate phenotypes to moral intelligence |
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What assumptions about race did proponents of policies like anti-miscegenation laws hold?
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-did not know biological outcome of mixing races
- Davenport's Jamaican vs. White to show different averages between limb length, illustrate racial differences |
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Describe examples in which physics served as the model of how science should be done in biology.
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-Darwin wanted biology to be like physics with supernatural aspects removed
-wanted to base biology off of Newtonian influences, mathematical, etc... |
