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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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entire process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and body cells
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respiration
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moving air in and out of the lungs
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breathing or ventilation
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exchange of gases between the air in the lung and the blood
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external respiration
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exchange of gases bwteen the blood and body cells
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internal respiration
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use of O2 and production of CO2 by cells of the body
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cellular respiration
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what is another word for ventilation?
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breathing
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what are the parts of the upper respiratory tract?
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nose, nasal cavity, sinuses and pharynx
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what are the parts of the lower respiratory tract?
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larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs
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what type of cartilage is found in the nose? what are the cartilages found in the nose called?
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hyaline cartilage
septal cartilage, lateral process of septal cartilage, minor and major alar cartilages |
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what bones form the nasal cavity?
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nasal, frontal, maxillary
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what are the strucutes of the nasal cavity?
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structures:nostrils, nasal septum (formed by septal cartilage and vomer bone and ethmoid bone), posterior nasal apertures, nasal vestibule (containing sebaeous and sweat glands and hair follicles), vibrissae (hairs), olfactory epithelium, respiratory mucosa
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what does the hair do for the nasal cavity?
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filters coarse particles from inspired air.
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what does the olfactory epithelium do for the nasal cavity?
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contains smell receptors
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what does the respiratory mucosa do for the nasal cavity?
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contains goblet cells which supply mucous and serous glands.
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what are vibrissae? what are they good for?
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hair that filters coarse particles from inspired air
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what are five functions of the nasal cavity?
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1. provides an airway for respiration
2. moistens and warms entering air 3. filters and cleans inspired air 4. serves as a resonation chamber for speech 5. houses the olfactory receptors |
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what are the three divisions of the pharynx?
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nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
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what types of epithelium do we find in each of the regions of the pharynx and how does that relate to the function of each section?
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nasopharynx: pseudostratifies ciliated columnar epithelium, respiration
oropharynx and laryngopharynx: nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, digestion and respiration |
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what are the functions of the larynx?
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connects pharynx and trachea
passage of air in and out of lungs prvents forgeign objects entering trachea contains vocal cord |
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what are the nine carilages which make up the larynx?
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epiglottic (1)
thryroid (2) Criocid (2) corniculate (2) arytenoid (2) |
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what is the function of the "false vocal cords"?
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close off glottis and keep food out
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what is the function of the true vocal cords?
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sound produced when air forced across them
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how do we speak?
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pitch is chaned by amount of tensions. sound is produced when air is forced across the true vocal cords
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what is valsalva's maneuver?
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closing of the glottis and contraction of the abdominal muscles
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what does valsalva's maneuver do for the body?
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1. stabilizes trunk during heavy lifting
2. increases vagal activity 3. slows retun of blood 2 heart 4. aids in defecation 5. increases intrathoracic and intraabdominal pressure. |
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where is the trachea in relationship to the esophagus and how do they fit together?
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open end of "C" shaped rings is prosterior to allow esopagus to expand in.
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describe the trachea.
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extends from larynx to primary bronchi
smooth muscle 20 "C" shaped rings of hyaline cartilage lined with pseudostratifed ciliated columnar epithelium. |
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what muscle is found in the trachea?
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smooth muscle: trachealis muscle
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what type of epithelium lines the trachea?
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pseudostratifed ciliated columnar epithelium.
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what is the carnia?
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ridge: most sensitive areas for triggering cough reflex
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how do the right and left primary bronchi differ?
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right is shorter, wider, more vertical.
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if you inhaled a foreign object, where would it probably end up?
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right primary bronchi
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describe the branching of the bronchi.
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right and left primary bronchi
3 secondary branches on right, 2 on left 10 tertiary branches on right, 8 on left. |
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how can you tell the difference between a brochus and bronchiole?
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bronchus: lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and held open by complete rings of cartilage
bronchioles: simple cuboidal epithelium and walls contains smooth muscles. |
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what are the membranes surrounding the lungs?
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separated by mediastinum
sides is pleural membranes |
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how do the right and left lung differ and why?
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right has 3 lobes and two fissure shorter
left has 2 lobes and one fissure, cardiac notch because left has to have space for heart and right has to have space for liver |
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name the lobes and fissure of each lung.
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right lung: superior lobe, middle lobe, and inferior lobe, horizontal fissure, obligue fissure
left lung: superior lobe and inferior lobe, oblique fissure |
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what is a bronchopulmonary segment?
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pyramid0shaped segment separated from one another by connective tissue epta. each segment is served by its own artery and vein and receives air from an individual segmental bronchus.
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what two circulations supple the lungs? are they totally separate?
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Pulmonary: high volume, low pressure
Bronchial: small volume; high pressure some mixing; most of return through pulmonary veins |
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what three types of cells would you find in an alveoli? and what does each do?
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type 1 alveolar cells: with capillary forms respiratory membrane that aids in gas exchange.
type 2 alveolar cells: secrete alveolar fluid, contains surfactant alveolar macrophages: dust cells |
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what is respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn?
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is it s syndrome where the is an inadequate pulmonary surfactant. when too little surfanctant is present, surface tension forces can collape the alveoli. once this happens, the alveoli must be completele reinflated during each inspiration, an effort that uses tremendous amounts of energy.
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what can be done to help respiratory distress syndrome?
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IRDS is treated by spraying natural or synthetic surfactant into the newborn;s respiratory passageways. in addition, devices that maintain a positive airway pressure throughout the respiratory cycle are often used to keep the alveoli open between breaths. in sever cases, mechanical ventilators are required.
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describe the alveolar-capillary or respiratory membrane.
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0.5- um-thick air-blood barrier that has gas on one side and blood flowing past on the other.
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how is the alveolar-capillary or respiratory membrane suited to diffusion?
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O2 passes from the alveolus into the blood, and CO2 leaves the blood to enter the gas-filled alveolus.
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what muscles are involved in inspiration?
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inspiratory muscles: the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.
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which muscles invovled in inspiration is most important?
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the diaphragm is far more impoartant in producting the volume changes that lead to normal inspiration.
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How does inspiration occur?
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1. inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends; rib cage rises)
2. throacic cavity voulume increases 3. kungs are stretched; intrapulmonary volume increases 4. intrapulmonary pressure drops 5. air (gases) flow into lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is 0 (equal to atm. pressure) |
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what is the pressure in the lungs before inspiration? what is this equal to?
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760 mm Hg
it is equal to prssure of atmosphere |
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inspiration ___ the size of the thoracic cavity and ____ pressure.
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increases size; decreases pressure
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what is Boyle's Law?
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at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume: P1V1 = P2V2
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how much air is moved during inspiration?
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500ml
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how does expiration occur?
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1. inspiratory muslces relax (diaphragm rises; rib cage descends due to recoil of coatal cartilages)
2. Throacic cavity bolume decreases 3. elastic lungs recoil passively; intrapulmonary volume decreases. 4. intrapulmonary pressure rises 5. air (gases) flow out of lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulomary pressure is 0. |
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what additional muscles are involved in forced inhalation and in forced exhalation?
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expiration involve contration of the internal intercostal and abdominal muscles (mostly obliques and tranvsersus)
forced inspiration involves contraction of sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis minor muscles |
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what kind of process is expirations?
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passive process
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what ia the primary factor which determines the resistance in the lungs?
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the diameters of the conducting tubes.
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what is the major source of nonelastic resistance in airway resistance?
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friction
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why is resistance in the lungs normally insignificant?
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1. airway diameters int he 1st part of the conducting zone are huge, relative to the low viscosity of air.
2. as the airways get progressively smaller, there are progressively more branches. as a result, although individual bronchioles are tiny, there are an enormous number of them in parallel, so the total cross-sectional area is huge. |
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what is lung compliance?
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in healthy lungs, they are very stretchy, allowing for a lot of expansion for a given pressure.
specifically, (Cl) is a measure of the cange in lung volume that occurs with a given change in the transpulmonary pressure (delta (Ppul - Pip). |
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what factors affect lung conpliance?
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1. distensibility of the lung tissue
2. alveolar surface tension. |
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the higher the lung compliance, the ___ it is to expand the lungs at any given transpulmonary pressure.
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easier
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what is eupnea?
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normal, quiet breathing
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what is Apnea?
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temporary cessation of breathing
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what is Dyspnea?
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painful or labored breathing
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what is tidal volume?
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air moved by one respiration, about 500 ml
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what is inspiratory reserve volume?
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additional air taken in during maximal inhalation
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what is expiratory reserve volume?
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additional air expired during forced exhalation
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what is residual volume?
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amount of air left in alveoli after forced expiration that keeps them inflated
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what is inspiratory capacity?
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tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume
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what is functional residual capacity?
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residual volume + expiration reserve volume
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what is vital capacity?
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inspiration reserve volume + tidal volume + expiration reserve volume
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what is total lung capacity?
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sums of all volumes
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what is the anatomic dead space?
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due to conducting parts of system.
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How could you estimate a person's anatomic deade space volume?
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equal to ideal weight in pounds expressed in mililiters (about 150 ml)
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how do you calculate minute volume of respiration?
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tidal volume x breaths per minute
500 ml x 12 breaths/min = 6000 ml/min. |
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how does you calculated alveolar ventilation rate?
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volume of air that reaches alveoli = tidal volume - dead space
ex. (500ml - 150 ml) x 12 breaths/min = 4200 ml/min. |
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what is meant by Forced Vital Capacity and Forces Expiratory Volume?
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Forced Vital Capacity: deep breath expelled rapidly
Forced Expiratory Volume: amount of air expelled during a specific time of forced vital capacity. (FVC) |
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how would FVC and FEV change in obstructive and restricive pulmonary disease?
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obstructive disease: exhale much less
restrictive disorders: exhale 80% or more but FVC is reduced |
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what is the medullary rhythmicity center, and what does it control?
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serveral groups of neurons in medulla oblongata and pons that control rate and depth of breathing (basic rhythm of respiration)
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which of the two groups of neurons found in the medullary rhythmicity center controls the normal rate of breathing?
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ventral respiratory group: inspiration for 2 seconds, expirations for 3 seconds. 12-15 breaths/min.
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how is the ventral respiratory group influenced by the pontine respiratory center?
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the pontine respiratory center fine tunes breathing rhythms of ventral respiratory group during vocalization, sleep and exercise.
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what is the normal rate of breathing?
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inspiration - 2 seconds
expiration - 3 seconds 12-15 breaths per minute |
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what influences the central chemoreceptors and how do they respond?
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changes in concentration of CO2 and pH.
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what influences the peripheral chemoreceptors? what does it do?
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stimulated by oxygen concentration decrease
sends impulses to respiratory centers and breathing increases |
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what is hyperventilation and how does it affect blood pH? why?
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an increase in the rate and depth of breathing that exceeds the body;s need to remove CO2.
affects blood pH rises because of blood Ca levels falling. low CO2 levels in the blood cause cerevral blood vessels to constrict, reducing brain perfusion and producing cerebral ischemia. |
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how do temperature and pain affect the breathing rate?
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increase temp: increase respiration
decrease temp: decrease respiration initial pain: stop breathing cronic pain: increase breathing |
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what is the normal atmospheric pressure at sea level?
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760 mm Hg
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what do we mean by a partial pressure?
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total pressure x % of gas
ex. 760 mm Hg x 0.21 = 160 mm Hg |
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what is dalton's law?
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each gas in a mixture exerts its own pressure AS IF ALL OTHER GASES WERE NOT PRESENT.
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what is Henry's Law?
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the quatity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility coefficient when the temperature remain constant.
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how does the pattial pressure of a gas influence its diffusion?
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partial pressure of gases drive them across the respiratory membrane.
O2 diffuses rapidly from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillary blood - Po2 is 104 mm Hg. CO2 diffues in opposite direction of O2 and has a much gentler partial pressure gratient of 5mm Hg until equilibrium occurs at 40 mm Hg. |
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what happens during external respiration?
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exchange between air in alveoli and blood.
diffuse down pressure gradient which is determined by partial pressure of each gas. |
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what happens during internal respiration?
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1. tissue cells contiunuously use O2 for their metabolic activities and produce CO2.
2.because pressure of O2 in the tissues is always lower than that in the systemic arterial blood, O2 moves rapidly from the blood into the tissue until equalibrium is reached. 3. Co2 moves quickly along its pressure gradient into the blood. as a result, venous blood draining the tissue capillary beds and returning to the heart has a pressure of O2 of 40 mm Hg and a pressure of CO2 of 45 mm Hg. |
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how does the response of the arterioles in the lungs to low oxygen content of the alveoli differ from the response of arterioles elsewhere in the body?
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when pressure of O2 is low, the terminal arterioles constrict, and blood is redirected to respiratory areas where pressure of O2 is high and oxygen pickup may be more efficient.
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what is alveolar ventilation?
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the amount of gas reaching the alveoli
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what is pulmonary perfusion?
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the amount of blood flow in pulmonary capillaries
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how does the concentration of CO2 affect the bronchioles?
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areas where CO2 is high, brochioles dilate, allowing CO2 to be eliminated from the body more rapidly.
Low pressure of CO2, bronchioles constrict. |
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how is oxygen transported in the blood?
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98% of O2 is bound to the iron in hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin. there are 4 iron atoms per hemoglobin, so 1 hemoglobin molecule can hold up to 4 molecules of O2.
the rest is dissolved in plasma. |
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how does the binding or the loss of one or more oxygen molecules to hemoglobin affect subsequent binding or losses?
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after the 1st O2 moleucle binds to iron, the hemoglobin molecule changes shape. As a result, it more readily takes up two more O2 molecules and uptake of the fourth is even more facilitated.
unloading of one O2 molcule enhances the unloading of the next and so on. the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 changes witht he extent of O2 saturation, and both loading and unloading of O2 are very efficient. |
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what other factors can influence hemoglobin saturation?
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increased in temperature, CO2, acid and BPG (2,3-biphosphoglycerate)
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what is the Bohr effect?
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an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide will reduce the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin. Increasing blood carbon dioxide levels can lead to a decrease in pH because of the chemical equilibrium between carbon dioxide.
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why is carbon monoxide dangerous?
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binds to iron in hemonglobin
binds more tightly than oxygen decreases the ability of the blood to carry O2 |
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what three ways does the blood transport carbon dioxide?
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7% is dissovled in plasma
23% combines with the amono groupd of the hemoglobn forming carboaminohemoglobin 70% is converted to bicarvonate ions |
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how is most of the carbon dioxide transported?
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converted to bicoarbonate ions
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what is the Haldane effect?
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Deoxygenation of the blood increases its ability to carry carbon dioxide; this property is the Haldane effect. Conversely, oxygenated blood has a reduced capacity for carbon dioxide.
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what are the organs of the urinary system?
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2 kidneys
urinary bladder 2 ureters urethra |
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what are the functions of the kidneys?
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regulate blood volume and composition
regulate blood pH regulate blood pressure contribute to metabolism |
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where are your kidneys?
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between T12 and L3
partially protected by 11th and 12th ribs right kidney is lower than left |
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where are your kidneys in relation to the peritoneum?
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kidneys and ureters are retroperitoneal
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what are the three layers that surround and protect the kidneys?
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renal capsule
adipose capsule renal fascia |
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the indented region of an organ from which blood and/or lymphatic vessels and nerves enter and exit
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hilum
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most superficial region, light in color and has a granular appearance.
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renal cortex
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deep to the cortex is the darker, reddish-brown part which exhibits cone-shaped tissue masses
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renal medulla
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a funnel-shaped tube, which is continuous with the ureter leaving the hilum.
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renal pelvis
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branching extensions of the pelvis from two or three ___ which is then subdivided into form several ____ cup-shaped areas that enclose the papillae.
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major calyces; minor calyces
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what is the functional unit of the kidney? what are its functions?
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nephron
filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion |
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what are the parts of a nephron?
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renal corpuscle: glomerulus and glomerular capsule
renal tubule: proxinal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct |
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what three processes are used to make urine?
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1. glomerular filtration:
2. tubular reabsorption 3. tubular secretion |
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what process(es) take place in each sections in the nephron?
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glomerular fitration in the glomeruli
tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion in the renal tubules |
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what are the two types of nephrons and how do they differ?
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cortical nephrons: represent 85% of the nephrons in the kidneys
jusxtamedullary nephrons: originat close to the cortex-medulla junction, and play an important rol ing the kidneys' ability to produce concentrated urine. |
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why is the structure of the efferent and afferent arterioles so critical to the functionin of the kidney?
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the afferent arteriole has a larger diameter than the efferent. this causes a high blood pressure which easily forces flud and solutes out of the blood into the glomerular capsule. mostof the resulting filtrate is reavsorved by the rnal tubule cells and returned to the blood in the peritubular capillary beds.
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what type of epithelium is found in the proxinmal convoluted tubules?
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cuboidal and have microvilli
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what function occurs in the proximal convoluted tubules?
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65% of water and 100% of some solutes are reabsored here
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what three strutures make up the filtration membrane?
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1. fenestrated endothelium
2. basement membrane of glomerulus 3. slit membrane |
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what does each layer of the filtration membran hold back from the filtrate?
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1. fenestrated endothelium: prevents passage of cells
2. basement membrane of glomerulus: prevents passage of large porteins 3. slit membrane: prevents passage of medium sized proteins |
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what is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
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the region where the most distal portion of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle lies against the afferent arteriole feeding the glomerulusus.
plays an important role in regulating the rate of filtrate formation and systemic blood pressure. |
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how does the juxtaglomerular apparatus function to control blood pressure locally and systemically?
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when BP decreases, JGA secretes renin which converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, angiotesnsin I is converted to Angiotensin II in the lungs.
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How is angiotensin II formed?
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JGA secretes renin which converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, angiotesnsin I is converted to Angiotensin II in the lungs.
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how does angiotensin II increase blood pressure?
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it is a potent vasoconstrictor
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what is mesangial cells?
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part of the JGA that are interconnected by gap junctions and may pass signals between macula densa and granular cells.
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what two type of cells make up the distal convoluted tublues and collecting ducts? what are their functions?
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1. principal cells: respond to antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone
2. intercalated cells: secrete H, ridding body of excess acid |
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what force drives fluid out of the glomerular capillaries?
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glomerular hydrostatic pressure (HPg)
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how is urine formed?
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1. the kidneys dump cell and protein free blood into a separate container (the renal tubules and collecting ducts)
2. from this container, the kidneys reclaim (by tubular reabsorption) everything the body needs to keep. this is almost everything. (all glucose and amino acids, some of the wat, salt, and other components. anything that is not reabsorbed become urine. 3. in addition, some things are selectively added to the containers to fine-tune the body's chemical balance. |
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what two forces oppose glomerular filtration?
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1. colloid osmotic prssure of glomerular blood (OPg)
2. casular hydrostatic pressure (HPc) |
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how do renal autoregulation affect the kidneys?
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the kidney can maintain a nearly constant GFR despite fluctuations in systemic arterial blood pressure by adjusting its own resistance to blood flow. has two types of controls: 1. myogenic memchanism, 2. tubuloglomerular geedback mechanism.
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how does neural mechanisms affect the kidneys?
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vessels of the kidney have sympathetic innervation
at rest, efferent and afferent arterioles maximally dilated moderate stimulation decreases both equally strong stimulation constricts the afferent arteriole more than the efferent which decreases GFR (this triggers release of renin) |
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how does myogenic mechanism affect the kidneys?
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its vascular smooth muscle contrats when stretched
when BP increases afferent arteriole contracts when BP decreases afferent arteriole dilates |
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how does tubuloglomerular feedbak mechanism affect the kidneys?
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macula densa cells monitor Na, Cl and water
when these decreases, JGA dilates afferent arteriole (this causes a release of vasoconstrictor, probably ATP) increases blood pressure in glomerulus |
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how does hormonal regulation affect the kidneys?
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when BP decreases, JGA secretes renin which converts angoitensinogen to angiotensin I, angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II in the lungs
1. angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor 2. it also stimulates the release of aldosterone and acts on kindye to increase Na reabsorption 3. it stimulates the thirst center in the hypothalamus and release of ADH from the posterior pituitary gland. 4. decreases peritubular capillary pressure by constricting aggerent arteriole and increasing fluid reabsorption. 5. causes the glomerular mesangial cells to contract, reducing the total surface area of the glomerular capillaries available for filtration, causing more fluid to be retained. |
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what is tubular reabsorption?
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volume of fluid that enters the proximal concoluted tublue in half an hr. > total plasma volume.
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what is reabosorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule?
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water, glucose, amino acids, urea and ions, esp. Na, Cl, and K
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how is sodium moved from the filtrate to the peritubular capillaries?
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primary active transport
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what is transport maximun and what happens when it is exceeded?
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the maximum amount of a substance that can by reabsorbed per unit time.
when the plasma concentration for a substance exceeds the ramsport maximum, it begins to spill into the urine. this is called the rnal threshold. |
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how does ADH affect the distal convoluted tubule?
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stimulates cells to put water channesl into membranes. it is responsible for facultative (responding to need) water reabsorption.
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what does aldosterone do in the distal convoluted tubule?
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it causes principal cells to synthesize sodium pumps. also causes potassium to be secreted into urine.
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what is tubular secretion and what are the two main functions of tubular secretion?
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reabsorption in reverse.
1. secretion of substances to eliminate them from body (ions, nitrogen containing waste like urea and creatinine and certain drugs) 2. secretion of H helps to maintain blood pH |
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how is a dilute urine produced?
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in absence of ADH the kidneys produce a dilute urine; tubules absorb more solutes than water.
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how is a concentrated urine produced?
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long loops of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons.
can produce a filtrate 4x more concentrated than plasm. |
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what is meant by the countercurrent mechanism?
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establishes a concentration gradient in the intersitial fluid of the medulla of the kidney.
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what is diabete insipidus?
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a condition characterized by excessive thirst and excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, with reduction of fluid intake having no effect on the latter. There are several different types of DI, each with a different cause. The most common type is neurogenic DI, caused by a deficiency of arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH). The second common type of DI is nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, which is caused by an insensitivity of the kidneys to ADH. It can also be an iatrogenic artifact of drug use.
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describe the ureters.
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mucosa, muscularis, and fibrous coat.
muscoas is transitional epithelium mucus protects ureters from urine pH and concentration. outer coat or adventitia contains blood and lymph vessels and sensory nerves. |
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how do they conduct urine to the bladder?
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peristalsis
hydrostatic pressure and gravity also help. |
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what do we find at the juction of the ureters and the bladder?
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trigone- bwtween opening of ureters and internal urethral ofifice. muscoas is firmly bound to musclularis
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describe the urinary bladders location.
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posterior to pubic symphysis
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describe the urinary bladder layers.
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muscoas, submucosa, muscularis, and serous coat.
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descibe type of epithelium in urinary bladder.
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mucosal is transitional epithelium
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describe trigone in urinary bladder.
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between openings of ureters and internal urethral orifice
mucosa is firmly bound to muscularis |
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descirbe internal and external urethral sphincters in urinary bladder.
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internal urethral sphincter is involuntary
external uretral sphincter is voluntary |
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how does micturition occur?
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also called urination or voiding.
to occur three things must happen simultaneously: 1. the detrusor muscle must contract 2. the internal urethral sphincter must open 3. the external urethral sphincter must open. |
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how does the urethra differ in the male and the female? how are they the same?
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different:
males- 2 divisons: prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, and spongy urethra. also discharges semen Same: both have mucosa and muscularis layers, both discharges urine. |
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how do we evaluate kidney function?
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blood urea nitrogen (BUN) - urea is a breakdown production of proteins
creatinine - end product of muscle metabolism |
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of BUN and serum creatinin, which one is influneced by diet?
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BUN
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what does inulin clearance give us? clearance of PAH (para amino hippuric acid)?
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inulin: not absorbed or secreted = GFR
PAH: not absorbed, actively secreted = renal plasma flow. |
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what does urine normally look like?
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transparent yellow
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what would you expect to find in urine?
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contains ions: Na, Cl, K
introgenous wastes: ammonia, creatinine, urea and uric acid foreign chemicals: drugs, pesticied, food additives etc. suspended solids in trace amounts: bacteria, blood cells, casts. |
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what would you not fin in a normal urine sample?
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albumin
glucose, acetone (means diabetes mellitus) bile (means liver disease, obstruction of bile ducts or hemolytic disease) |
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what is a cast?
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impressions of kidney tubules formed when certain substances (RBC, WBC, etc.) are push against the walls of the tubules. the casts become dislodged.
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what is normal pH of urine? why?
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4.6 - 8.0
we have a predominantly acidic diet that contain large amounts of protein and whole wheat products which produces acidic urine. |
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what is the noraml specific gravity of urine?
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1.001-1.035
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what factors would increase the specific gravity of urine? what would decrease it?
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increase: diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes), emesis or fever, vomiting.
decreases: lack of ADH (diabetes insipidus) |
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How much kidney do you need to survive?
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2/3 of one
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describe the vascular system surrounding the nephron.
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has the peritubular capillary that it the sorce of tubular secretion and it puts good nutrients back into the blood.
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what do we mean by "where sodium goes, water follows"?
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osmotic pressure. it draws water to where ever sodium is.
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what is meant by "facultative water reabsorption"?
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water is absorbed according to need.
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why (chemically speaking) do we need oxygen?
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it is the final electron acceptant at the end of the electron transport chain.
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How does the larynx of a male differ from that of a female?
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the thyroid cartilage in the male is at a 90 degree angle where as the womans is wider. this causes males to have a longer vocal cord, therefore a deeper voice.
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hoe does the presence of the mediastinum protect lung function?
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it separates the left lung form the right lung. if anything happens to one side of the lungs the mediastiunum protects the other side so that it can continue functioning.
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what should not be done to a respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn and why?
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should not give them too much Oxygen. cause fibrosis of ventral tumor
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what is meant by "balance" in the body?
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a state of equilibrium. substances are maintained in the right amounts and in the right place in the body
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by what process does water move within the body?
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osmosis
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whatg determines the concentration of water?
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concentration of solutes
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who had a greater amount of water, a baby or an adult? a woman or a man? why?
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babies have 75% water
men have 63% woman have 52% deposition of fat is what drives water in women. muscle has more water (men have a higher percent of muscle than women) |
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where would you find transcellular fluid?
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extracellular fluid
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what happens to body water content as we age?
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total body water declines throughout life. body mass in old age is only 45% water
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what are the two main locations for water in the body?
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intracellular 2/3 of total body water
extracellular 1/3 of total body water |
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what main location for water in the body can be broken down into two more compartments? what are they?
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extracellular:
1. interstitial fluid (80% of extracellular water) 2. blood plasma (20% of extracellular water) |
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what are the two factors that control water movement between the three compartments?
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hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
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how does hydrostatic pressure work?
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pushes fluids out of the cell
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how does osmotic pressure work?
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solute concentration. it is the pulling force. depends of the number of particles.
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where does the water we take in come from?
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preformed water: drinking water, moist food
water of metabolism: cellular respiration and dehyration synthesis |
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how do we prevent dehydration?
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increase of blood osmotic pressure which stimulates osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
the thirst center is in the hypothalamus and is stimulated so person feels thirsty. when water is absorbed blood osmotic pressure decreases. there is also a decrease in blood volume so renin is produced. |
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what stops us from taking in too much water?
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wetting of the mouth and stretching of the stomach or intestines decrease thirst so we dont take in too much water
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How do we lose water?
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through kidneys in urine
through intestines (can be significant in vomiting and diarhhea) from skin (sweat) from lung and skin |
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what is insensible loss?
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lung and skin water loss. (also menstration)
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what is the main way we control water loss?
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by regulating urine formation.
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what three hormones are involved in lossing water and how do they work?
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ADH: production stimulated by increase blood tonicity of decrease in volume. acts on distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of kidney which permits reabsorption of water
aldosterone: production is stimulated by angiotensin II through renin production. it causes sodium (and water) to be reabsorbed ANP (atrial niporetic peptide) causes sodium (and water) loss when pressure in right atrium is too high |
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what is obligatory water loss?
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loss of water in urine.
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what is water toxicity?
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if lose water by sweating we also los sodium. rapidly drinking large quantites of water decreases plasma sodium concentration initially, then see decrease in ISF as well. water is drawn into cells. this increases ISF tonicity and water is drawn from blood.
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how can overhydration occur?
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can occur if I.V. fluids are given too rapidly or in too large amounts.
extra fluids put strain on heart. |
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why do substances move in and out of capillaries in the body?
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water move back into capillaries depending on concentration of plasma proteins.
decrease in blood proteins caused by: dietary deficiency in proteins, liver failure, blockage of lymphatic system, increased capillary permeability (burns or infection) |
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oth the three main compartments what varies the most?
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interstitial fluid.
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what is edema and how does it occur?
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larges amount of fluid in the intercellular spaces.
1. excess water is added to extracellular fluid compartment. 2. solute concentration of ectracellular fluid compartment decreases. 3. water moves into intracellular fluid compartent by osmosis |
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how does forces differ at the arteriole and benous ends of the capillary?
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fluid leaves plasma at arteriolar end of capillaries bc outward forces of hydrostatic pressure predominates.
fluid returms to plasma at venular ends of capillaries bc inward force of colloid osmotic pressure predominates. hydrostatic pressure within interstital spaces forces fluid into lymph capillaries. interstitial fluid is in equilibrium with transcellular and intracellular fluids |
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what are elctrolytes?
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organic molecules in body fluids.
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what are anions? cations?
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anions: negatively charged ions
cations: positively charged ions |
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what do electrolytes do in the body?
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1. certain ions control the osmosis of water between body compartments
2. ions help maintain the acid-base balance necessary for cellular activity 3. ions carry electric current, which allows for action potentials and secretion of neurotransmitters 4. several ions are cofactors needed for the optimal activity of enzymes |
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sodium:
chemical symbol found in greater concentrations inside or outside cells what do they do for body how is its concentrations regulated? |
symbol: Na
concentrations: 90% of extracellular cations do: necessary for action potentials in nerve and muscle cells regulated: by aldosterone increases reabsorption from DCG and collecting ducts. ANP causes loss |
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potassium:
chemical symbol found in greater concentrations inside or outside cells what do they do for body how is its concentrations regulated? |
symbol: K+
concentrations: intracellular cation do: membran potential and repolarization regulated by: aldosterone. causes loss of K in urine |
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Calcium:
chemical symbol found in greater concentrations inside or outside cells what do they do for body how is its concentrations regulated? |
symbol: Ca++
concentrations: extracellular cation do: needed for blood clotting, nerve and muscle function regulated by: PTH causes reabsorption of bone and increases reabsorption from GI tract and glomerular filtrate. Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates osteoblasts, so calcium is removed from blood. |
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Chloride:
chemical symbol found in greater concentrations inside or outside cells what do they do for body how is its concentrations regulated? |
symbol: Cl-
concentrations:extracellular anions do: help balance charges. increases the reabsorption of Na (follows the Na) regulated by: aldosterone indirectly adjusts it when it increases the reabsorption of Na |
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Bicarbonate:
chemical symbol found in greater concentrations inside or outside cells what do they do for body how is its concentrations regulated? |
symbol: HCO3-
concentrations: extracellular. in blood do: part of body's chief buffer and transports CO2 in blood stream regulated by: the kidneys. the form bicarb when levels are low and excrete it when levels are high. |
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Phosphate ions:
chemical symbol found in greater concentrations inside or outside cells what do they do for body how is its concentrations regulated? |
symbol: HPO4 2-
concentrations: found in bones. in comvinations with lipids, proteins, carbs, nucleic acids, and ATP do: part of phosphate buffer system regulated by: PTH causes phosphate to be released from bones and to be excreted by the kidneys. calcitonin removes phosphate by encouraging bone formation. |
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are most of the solutes in our body fluids mostly electrolytes, or non-electrolytes?
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electrolytes. only non electrolytes is glucose, urea, creatinine
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what is pH? what does it affect?
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negative log of H concentration
affects functioning of proteins, and concentrations of other ions, modify hormone actions (proteins) |
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what is an acid? what is a base? what makes them strong or weak?
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acid has a negalive log of H concentration of 0-6.9. neutral-7, base 7.1-14
strong acids and bases ionize (break apart) completely. weak acids and bases do not completely dissociate in solution |
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what is the three major ways the body handles acids and bases?
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1. buffer systems
2. exhalation of carbon dioxide 3. kidney excretion |
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what is a buffer system?
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pairs of chemical substances that prevent a sharp change in the pH of a solution.
buffers exchange strong acids for weaker acids that do not release as much H and thus change the pH less |
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what are the three main buffer systems of the body?
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bicarbonate buffer system
phosphate buffer system protein buffer system |
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how much more bicarbonate ion than carbonic acid does the blood contain?
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blood needs to maintain a 20:1 ration of bicarbonate ion : carbonic acid.
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how does a protein act as a buffer?
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the carboxyl group acts a the acid component and the amino group is used as the base component
its is an amphoteric molecule. a single protein molecule can function reversibly as either an acid or a base depending on the pH of its environment. it prevents the solution from becoming too acidic by removing free hydrogen ions from the solution Hemoglobin is also a buffer. |
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what is the bicarbonate buffer system and where is it most effective?
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a mixture of caronic acid and its salt, sodium bicarbonate, in the same solutions.
it is only important ECF buffer. |
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what is the phosphate buffer system and where is it most effective?
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components of the phosphate system are the sodium salts of dihydrogen phosphate and monohydrogen phosphate.
very effective buffer in urine and in ICF |
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what is a volatile acid?
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an acid that can be eliminated by the lungs; carbonic acid is converted to Co2, which diffuses into the alveoli
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what is a fixed acid?
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acids that can only be rid of the body by the kidneys
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what happens to blood pH when we hyperventilate? when we hypoventilate?
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hyperventilating: decrease pH
hypoventilating: increases pH |
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why are kidneys the most efficient and important of the acid-base regulatory systems?
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can eliminate larger amounts of acids than the lungs.
can also excrete bases can excrete acids while conserving bicarbonate ion. can produce more bicarbonate ion. |
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what are the good aspects and down-sides for each of the three ways our bodies regulate acids?
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Good: buffers are 1st line of defense bc they work almost instantaneously.
Bad: secondary defenses take longer to work: respiratory mechanisms take several mintues to hours and renal mechanisms may take several days |
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what do we mean by acidosis or alkalosis?
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acidosis: any pH below normal blood pH range
alkalosis: any pH above normal blood pH range |
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does blood ever get very acidic?
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no. bc the blood needs to stay between 7.35 and 7.45 for the body to function properly
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what is the normal range of blood pH?
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7.35 - 7.45
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what can cause respiratory acidosis? respiratory alkalosis? How does the body compensate?
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respiratory acidosis: carbonic acid excess. (blood CO2 is too high)
respiratory alkalosis: carbonic acid deficit (blood CO2 is too low) compensation: occur through kidneys |
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what can cause metabolic acidosis? metabolic alkalosis? how does the body compensate?
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acidosis: bicarbonate deficit
alkalosis: bicarbonate excess compensation: occur through cahnges in the depth and rate or respiration. |
