Structure & Function 2 Exam 2

Front 1

what type of tissue is blood?

Back 1

connective tissue

Front 2

what similarities do we see between blood and all other tissues of this type?

Back 2

Matrix (ground substance- fluid- plasma)

Front 3

what are the three main function of blood?

Back 3

Transportation: of oxygen, waiste gas, nutrients
regulation: homeostastis (pH, body temperature, H20 contentd
Protection: Hemostasis (blood clotting), ans immunity and nonspecific defenses, loss of blood

Front 4

how is blood different from water?

Back 4

heavier, thicker, and 3-5X more viscous

Front 5

how does the temperature of blood differ from the average body temperature?

Back 5

blood is at 100.4 degrees F

Front 6

what do you see after you put a tube of whole blood in a centrifuge?

Back 6

plasma
buffy coat
red cells

Front 7

what are the average percetanges of the components of a tube of whole blood in a centrifuge?

Back 7

Plasma - 55%
formed elements - 45%
buffy coat - <1%

Front 8

what are the "formed elements" of blood, and what percent of blood do they make up?

Back 8

cells and cell fragments - 45%

Front 9

what would you find in the buffy coat?

Back 9

white blood cells and platlets

Front 10

be able to calculated the approximate blood volume of a person if you are given his weight in kilograms.

Back 10

0.08 x kg of person = kg of blood. (1lb=2.2kg)

Front 11

what is an hematocrit and what does it measure?

Back 11

the percentage of blood volume occupied by erythrocytes

Front 12

how would the menatocrit of a male typically compare to that of a female?

Back 12

healthy males norm is 47% + or - 5%
healthy womens norm is 42% + or - 5%

Front 13

what is the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and what can it tell us?

Back 13

the rate at which red blood cells precipitate in a period of 1 hour. It is a common hematology test which is a non-specific measure of inflammation. To perform the test, anticoagulated blood is placed in an upright tube, and the rate at which the red blood cells fall is measured and reported in mm/h.

Front 14

when we remove the formed elements from blood, what's left?

Back 14

plasma

Front 15

what do we call the stem cell from which all blood cells originate?

Back 15

hempcytoblast

Front 16

where is blood formed in a fetus?

Back 16

yolk sac, liver, spleen, thymus gland, lymnodes, and red blood marrow

Front 17

where is blood formed after birth?

Back 17

only in red bone marrow

Front 18

describe the shape of an erytrocyte

Back 18

biconcave discs without nuclei
1/3 hemoglobin by volume

Front 19

why is the shape of an erythrocyte important to its function?

Back 19

the iron binds revesibly with oxygen to either gain or release oxygen

Front 20

to achieve the hemoglobin shape, what organelle does the cell have to lose, and how does this affect its ability to function?

Back 20

nucei, reproduce

Front 21

describe a hemoglobin molecule.

Back 21

4 peptide chains and an iron containing pigment called heme.

Front 22

wheredoes the oxygen bind to a hemoglobin?

Back 22

to the iron

Front 23

where can carbon dioxide bind?

Back 23

bound to globin

Front 24

when oxygen binds with hemoglobin what compound is formed?

Back 24

oxyhemoglobin

Front 25

what compound is formed when carbon dioxide binds with a hemoglobin?

Back 25

carbaminohemoglobin

Front 26

what compound is formed with carbon monoxide binds with a hemoglobin?

Back 26

carboxyhemopglobin

Front 27

whay would a person appear cyanotic?

Back 27

skin and mucous membranes appear blue

Front 28

why is carbon monoxide dangerous?

Back 28

it binds more tightly to hemoglobin

Front 29

where does nitric oxide (NO) bind, and what does it do?

Back 29

binds to sulfur atoms in lungs and is delivered with ixygen to tissues

Front 30

what is the average red blood cell count for a male?

Back 30

5.4 million RBCs per cubic mm

Front 31

what is the average RBC count for a female or child?

Back 31

4.8 million RBCs per cubic mm

Front 32

what is the average RBC count for a person libing at high altitudes?

Back 32

8 million RBCs per cubic mm

Front 33

what is a reticulocyte?

Back 33

a young erythrocyte

Front 34

what does the number of reiculocytes present in the blood stream tell us?

Back 34

rough index of the rate of RBC formation

Front 35

what is the life cycle of a RBC?

Back 35

1. low O2 levels in blood stimulate kidneys to produce erythroprotient,
2. erythroprotien levels rise in blood
3. erthroprotiend and necessary raw materials in blood promote erthropoiesis in red bone marrow
4. new erthrocytes enter blood stream and function about 120 days
5. aged and damaged red blood cells are engulfed by macrophages of liver, spleen, and bone marrow; the hemoglobin is broken down
6. Raw materials are made available in blood for erythrocyte synthesis

Front 36

what does it indivate if we see normoblasts in circulation?

Back 36

formation is almost complete for RBCs.

Front 37

what happens to hemoglobin when a RBC dies?

Back 37

it is broken down

Front 38

what is transferrin?

Back 38

transport protein that transports iron where developing erythrocytes take up iron as needed

Front 39

what is ferritin?

Back 39

protein where toxic iron is stored

Front 40

what is erthropoietin?

Back 40

(EPO) a glycoprotein hormone that stimuluates erthryocyte formation

Front 41

where is erythropoienin formed and what does it do?

Back 41

made in kidneys majority of the time and sometimes liver.

stimuluates erythrocyte formation

Front 42

what happens to bilirubin when the ducts from the liver to the small intestine becomes blocked?

Back 42

it cannot be secreted by the liver into the small intestine where it is metabloized to urobilinogen

Front 43

what is anemia?

Back 43

condition in which the blood has abnormally low oxygen-carrying capacity.

Front 44

what is pernicious anemia?

Back 44

a lack of RBCs due to lack of vitamin B12

Front 45

why does a person who is anemic feel "tired all the time"?

Back 45

blood oxygen levels are inadequate to support normal metabolism, therefore, not normal energy supplies

Front 46

what other vitamins and minerals are needed to prevent anemia?

Back 46

vitamin B12, folic acid, iron

Front 47

what is sickle cell anemia?

Back 47

a genetic life-long blood disorder characterized by red blood cells that assume an abnormal, rigid, sickle shape. Sickling decreases the cells' flexibility and results in a risk of various complications. The sickling occurs because of a mutation in the hemoglobin gene. Life expectancy is shortened.

Front 48

what is polycythemia?

Back 48

abnormal excess of erythrocytes that increases blood viscosity, causing it to sludge, or flow sluggishly.

Front 49

when can polycythemia be good and when can it be harmful?

Back 49

good: when cut
bad: causes clots so if already clotted it will make it worse

Front 50

what is the main function of leukocytes?

Back 50

helps defends agains disease

Front 51

what are the three cell lines in a leukocyte?

Back 51

myeloid, lymphoid, and monocytic

Front 52

name the two main types of leukocytes.

Back 52

1. granular leukocytes
2. agranular leukocytes

Front 53

what is the three types of granular leukocytes?

Back 53

neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils

Front 54

what are the two types of agranular leukocytes?

Back 54

lymphocytes
monocytes

Front 55

descibe eosinophils and their function.

Back 55

grandules stain red with acidic dyes
nuclei usually have 2 lobes
conbat effect of histamine in allergic reactions and parasitic worms

Front 56

describe basophils and their function?

Back 56

grandules that stain blue with basic dyes
release heparin and histamine
increase in allergic reactions that intensify the inflammatory response

Front 57

describe neutrophils and their function

Back 57

grandules stain pale purple in a combination of acidic and basic dyes
older cells have man lobed muclei
younger are called bands

Front 58

describe lymphocytes and their function

Back 58

may be small or large
muclei stain darkly, very little cytoplasm
long lived

Front 59

what doe B lymphocytes do?

Back 59

make antibodies

Front 60

what do T lymphocytes do?

Back 60

attack invaders directly

Front 61

describe monocytes and their function.

Back 61

largest leukocyte
nuclei horshoe-shaped
cytoplasm blue-gray and foamy
when leave blood and enter tissues becomes transformed into macrophages

Front 62

what is the relative proportions of each type of leukocytes?

Back 62

eosinophils: 1-3%
basophils: less than 1%
neutophils: 54-62%
lymphocytes: 25-33%
monocytes: 3-9%

Front 63

what is leukocytosis?

Back 63

increase number of WBCs

Front 64

what is leukopenia?

Back 64

deficiency of WBCs

Front 65

what is a "differential white blood cell count"? why is it Helpful?

Back 65

it is used to diagnosis of disease

Front 66

what information would you get if you asked the lab for a complete blood count?

Back 66

number of Hemoglobin, White blood cells, Platelets, and Hematocrit.

Front 67

what are major histocompatibility antigens and where are they found?

Back 67

a large genomic region or gene family found in most vertebrates.plays an important role in the immune system and autoimmunity. can find them as a type of white blood cell called a T cell

Front 68

describe a platelet.

Back 68

about 1/4th the diameter of a lymphocyte
cell fragments

Front 69

what cell does platelets come from and what does it do?

Back 69

formed from megakaryocytes
involved in blood clotting

Front 70

what are the three main types of protein found in blood plasma and what does each do?

Back 70

albumin: helps maintain blood osmotic pressure
globulin: transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins and constitute the antibodies of immunity
fibrinogen: plays a key role in blood coagulation

Front 71

what are the lipids found in plasma?

Back 71

cholesterol and triglycerids

Front 72

what are the carbohydrates found in plasma?

Back 72

glucose

Front 73

what else would you find in plasma?

Back 73

serum: ions, nutrients, enzymes, gases, wastes, hormones, and some proteins

Front 74

how is serum different?

Back 74

plasma without the clotting factors

Front 75

what does serum contain?

Back 75

ion, nutrients, enzymes, gases, wastes, hormones, and some proteins including antibodies

Front 76

what is hemostasis?

Back 76

stoppage of bleeding

Front 77

what are the four steps involved in hemostasis?

Back 77

1. vascular spasm
2. platelet plug formation
3. blood coagulation (clottin)
4. clot retraction

Front 78

what is vascular spasm? what causes it?

Back 78

smooth muscle in vessel wall contracts. decreased diameter of vessel decreases blood flow. last several minutes to several hours

Front 79

how is platelet plug formed? (3 steps)

Back 79

1. platelets contact damaged vessel (platelet adhesion)
2. platelets become activated, dump granules (platelet release reaction
3. platelets become sticky and accumulate (platelet aggregation)

Front 80

what is thrombosis?

Back 80

clotting in an unbroken vessel

Front 81

what is thrombus?

Back 81

a clot

Front 82

what is embolus?

Back 82

if the clot breaks gree and travels in the blood stream

Front 83

what is an embolism?

Back 83

if a blood clot lodges elsewhere in the body

Front 84

what are clotting factors?

Back 84

plasma proteins synthesized by the liver.

helps blood transforme from a liquid to a gel in a multistep process

Front 85

what mineral do clotting factors include?

Back 85

plasma proteins

Front 86

what vitamin is need for the formation of clotting factors?

Back 86

vitamin K

Front 87

where are many of the clotting factors made?

Back 87

synthesized by the liver

Front 88

what are the three stages of blood clotting?

Back 88

stage 1: formation of prothrombinase
stage 2: prothrombinase converts to thrombin
stage 3: thrombin + calcium (conver fibrinogen to fibrin)

Front 89

what are the differences between the extrinsic pathway and the intrisic pathway?

Back 89

extrisic pathway: tissue factor leaks into the blood from outside the vessel
intrinsic pathway: more complex, slower by roughened endothelium or exposure to foreign substances

Front 90

if blood clotting is a positive feedback loop, what keeps all our blood from clotting once it starts?

Back 90

anticoagulants

Front 91

what is clot retraction and how does it occur?

Back 91

shrinking of clot. Clot retraction is dependent on release of multiple coagulation factors from platelets trapped in the fibrin mesh of the clot

Front 92

how does a clot break down?

Back 92

fibrinolysis system: plasminogen, an inactive enzyme, is incorporated into a clot. plasminogen can be activated to plasmin which digest fibrin and inactivated other clotting factors

Front 93

what is hemophilia?

Back 93

several different hereditary bleeding disorders that have similar signs and symptoms

Front 94

what are some common anticoagulants and how do they work?

Back 94

prostaglandins
heparin (blocks the conbersion of prothrombin to thrombin and prevents the release of thromboplastin from platelets
warfarin or coumadin (antogonists to vitamin K)
chleating agents tie up cacium
aspirin inhibits vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation

Front 95

what are the three major blood groups

Back 95

ABO

Front 96

what antigens are found in type A blood? Type B? type AB? and type O?

Back 96

Type A: antigen A
type B: antigen B
Type AB: antigen A and B
Type O: none

Front 97

what antibodies does each type of blood produce?

Back 97

Type A: anti-B
Type B: anti-A
Type AB: none
Type O: anti-A and anti-B

Front 98

who is the "universal donor"?

Back 98

type O (-)

Front 99

who is the "universal recipient"?

Back 99

Type AB (+)

Front 100

what is the Rh factor?

Back 100

either have the antigen = (+)
or dont have the antigen = (-)
dont automatically make antibodies- must first encounter the antigen

Front 101

how is it designated in a person's blood type?

Back 101

have antigen = (+)
dont have antigen = (-)

Front 102

what is erythrobloastosis fetalis?

Back 102

if a mother is not treated and becomes pregnant again with an Rh+ baby, her antibodies will cross through the placenta and destroy the baby's RBCs

Front 103

when does erythroblastosis fetalis occur?

Back 103

ocurrs when a Rh- mother carries a Rh+ baby. first pregnancy results in the delivery of a healthy baby but is bleedung occurs as the placenta detaches from the uterus, the mother may be sensitized by her baby's Rh+ antigens that pass into her bloodstream.

Front 104

what does erythroblastosis fetalis do?

Back 104

mother will form anti-Rh antibodies that can destroy the baby's RBCs

Front 105

how can we prevent erythroblastosis fetalis?

Back 105

mother treated with RhoGAM before or shortly after giving birth.

Front 106

what is RhoGAM?

Back 106

a serum containing anti-Rh agglutinins. by agglutinating the Rh factor, it blocks the mother;s immune response and prevents her sensitization

Front 107

what are the hearts two pumps?

Back 107

right side - pulonary circulation
left side - systemic circulation

Front 108

what is the definition of an artery?

Back 108

any vessels that carries blood away from the heart

Front 109

what is a vein?

Back 109

any vessels that carries blood toward the heart

Front 110

does arteries always carry well oxygenated blood?

Back 110

no

Front 111

where is the body is the heart located?

Back 111

snugly enclosed within the mediastinum, the heart extends obliquely 12 to 14 cm from the second rib to the fifth intercotal space. rest on the superior surface of the diaphram, lies anterior to the verteral column and posterior to the sternum. the lungs flank the heart laterally and partiall obscure it. approximately 2/3 of its mass lies to the left of the midsternal line

Front 112

describe the three layers of the pericardium.

Back 112

fibrosus pericardium: though, dense connective tissue layer
serous pericardium: thin, slippery, two layer serous membrane (parietal layer and visceral layer)
pericardial cavity: between pareital and visceral layers of the serous pericardium, contains a film of serous fluid.

Front 113

what type of membranes are the visceral and parietal layer?

Back 113

serous membranes

Front 114

what is in the pericardial cavity?

Back 114

film of serous fluid

Front 115

whar are the three layers of the heart wall?

Back 115

epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium

Front 116

what is cardia tamponade?

Back 116

an emergency condition in which fluid accumulates in the pericardium. the fluid significantly elevates the pressure on the heart it will prevent the heart's ventricles from filling properly. This in turn leads to a low stroke volume. The end result is ineffective pumping of blood, shock, and often death.

Front 117

what is cardiac muscle?

Back 117

involuntary, striated, has intercalated discs

Front 118

what do desmosomes and gap junctions do?

Back 118

gap juctions: all ions to pass from cell to cell, transmitting current across the entire heart
desmosomes: prevent adjacted cells from separating during contraction

Front 119

where is the muscle fiber are gap junctions and desmosomes located?

Back 119

in intercalated discs

Front 120

how does calcium function in heart muscle?

Back 120

provides the signal for cross bridge activation and couples the depolarization wave to the sliding of the myofilaments

Front 121

where does most of the calcium used for heart muscel contraction come from?

Back 121

10-20% comes from extracellular space
80% comes from SR release

Front 122

what is the shape of the graph for heart musle contraction, and what is going on during each phase?

Back 122

shape: streight up the little dip down, levels off, the hard fall down.

phase 1: depolarization: due to Na+ influx through fast voltage-gated Na+ channels. a positive feedback sysle rapidly opens many Na channels, reversing the membrane potential. channel inactivation ends this phase.
phase 2: Plateau Phase: due to Cs influx throuh slow Ca channels. this keeps the cell depolarized because few K channels are open.
Phase 3: Repolarization: Ca channels inactivating and K channels opening. This allows K efflux, which brings the membrane potential back to its resting voltage.

Front 123

what is in the heart muscel which make up 25-35% of the cell volume?

Back 123

mitochondria

Front 124

what does many large mitochondria in the heart muscle indicate about how the heart produces energy and its ability to become fatigued?

Back 124

produces ample amount of energy and will not become fatigued

Front 125

what is the fibrous skeleton of the heart?

Back 125

connective tissues that for a dense network that reinforces the myocardium internally and anchors the cardiac muscle fibers.

Front 126

what 3 functions does the fibrous skeleton provide for the heart?

Back 126

anchors cardiac muscle fibers
supports the valves
prevents paddage of electrical activity from atria into ventricles

Front 127

what are the four chambers of the heart?

Back 127

Left and Right atria
left and Right ventricles

Front 128

what grooves or sulci are found in the heart?

Back 128

coronary sulcus, anterior interventrical sulcus, posterior interventricular sulcus,

Front 129

what is the trabeculae carneae?

Back 129

irregular ridges of muscle that marks the internal walls of the ventricular chambers

Front 130

what is papillary miscles, and what does it do?

Back 130

play a role in valve function and prject into the ventricular cavity

Front 131

what is the chordae tendineae and what does it do?

Back 131

attached to each atrioventricular value flap are tiny white collagen cords
it anchor the cusps to the papillary muscles protuding from the ventricular walls.

Front 132

what are the four valves of the heart?

Back 132

tricuspid valve, mitral value, aortic valve, pulmonary valve

Front 133

what are the major arteries that supply blood to the heart itself?

Back 133

left coronary artery divides into anterior interventricular artery and circumflex artery
right coronary artery divides into right marginal artery and posterior interventricular artery

Front 134

what are the major veins that supple blood to the heart itsefl?

Back 134

coronary sinus which has three large tributaries: great cardiac, middle cardiac, and small cardiac vein
anterior cardiac veins

Front 135

what is the pulmonary ciruit pathway?

Back 135

leaves the heart on the right side to the lungs and back to the left sife of the heart

Front 136

what is the systemic ciruit pathway?

Back 136

pumps blood from the left side of the heart to all body tissues and back to the right side of the heart.

Front 137

what are anastamoses and how do they benefit the heart?

Back 137

a network of streams that both branch out and reconnect, such as blood vessels or leaf veins. helps because is one path is blocked it can still supply blood to other parts of the system

Front 138

what are ischemia?

Back 138

reduced blood flow

Front 139

what is hypoxia?

Back 139

reduced oxygen supply

Front 140

what is angia pectoris?

Back 140

"strangled chest"

Front 141

what is myocardial infarction?

Back 141

death of an area of tissue due to interrupted blood flow

Front 142

what is the cardia cycle?

Back 142

one complete heart beat
systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxations) of both atria and systole and diastole of both ventricles

Front 143

what are the events of the cardiac cycle?

Back 143

1. blood returning to the heart fills atria, putting pressure againt atriventricular valves; atrioventricular valves are forced open
2. as ventricle fill, atroventricular valve flaps hang limpy into ventricles
3. atri contract, forcing additional blood into ventricles
4. ventricles contract forcing blood against atrioventricular valve cusps
5. atrioventricular valves close
6. papillary muscle contract and cordae tendineae tighten, preventing valve flaps from everting into atria
7. as ventricles contract and intracentricular pressure rises, blood is pushed up agains semilunar valves, forcing them open
8. as ventricles relax and intraventricular pressure falls, blood flows back from ateries, filling the sups of semilumar valves and forcing them to close.

Front 144

what three vessels empty into the right atrium?

Back 144

coronary sinus, anterior cardia veins

Front 145

what is the exceptions that all arteries are well oxygenated?

Back 145

pulmonary artery

Front 146

what are the heart sounds and what causes them?

Back 146

Lubb - ventricular systole
dupp - ventricular diastole

Front 147

where can you place the stethocope to hear the sounds for each of the heart calces by itself?

Back 147

2nd intercostal space at right sternal margin: sounds of aortic valve
2nd intercostal space at left sternal margin: sounds of pulmonary valve
right strnal margin of 5th intercostal space: sounds of tricuspid valve
5th intercostal space in line with middle of clavicle: sounds of mitral valve

Front 148

a heart murmur signals trouble with what part of the heart?

Back 148

valves

Front 149

trace the path of impulse flow through the conduction system of the heart.

Back 149

Sinoatrial node
atroventricular node
atroventricular bundle (bundle of His)
purkinje fibers

Front 150

what is unusual about the restin potential for the cells of the SA node or pacemaker?

Back 150

its unstabel resting potential the continuously depolarizes, drifting toward threshold

Front 151

how does the unusual resting potential for the cells of the SA node work?

Back 151

hyperpolarization after action potentials leads to both closing of K channels and opening of slow Na channels. at threshold, Ca channels open causing a rising anf plateau phases. repolarization is due to efflux of K

Front 152

how does the fibrous skeleton of the heart affect the flow of electrical activity between the atria and the ventricles?

Back 152

prevents passage of electrical activity from atria into ventricles

Front 153

the SA node and AV node and Ourkinje fibers can all ac as pacemakers in the heart. what affects whichone sets the rhythm of heart contractions?

Back 153

the rates of depolarization. SA node is ~ 75 bpm, AV node is ~50 times per min, Purkinje fibers is ~30 times per min. the slower rates of depolarization cannot be pacemakers unless the faster ones are not functioning

Front 154

what is an ectopic pacemaker?

Back 154

an excitable group of cells that causes a premature heart beat outside the normally functioning SA node of the human heart. Acute occurrence is usually non-life threatening, but chronic occurrence can progress into tachycardia, bradycardia or ventricular fibrillation

Front 155

what are the waves of an electrocardiogram?

Back 155

P, Q, R, S, T waves

Front 156

what caused each of the waves of an electrocardiogram?

Back 156

P: depolarization of atria
QRS: atria repolarization, ventricular depolarization
T: ventricular repolarization

Front 157

what is tachycardia?

Back 157

>100 bpm

Front 158

what is bradycardia?

Back 158

<60 bpm

Front 159

what part of the brain regulates heart rate?

Back 159

medulla oblongata

Front 160

trace the path of the sympathetic nerves from the medulla oblongata to the heart.

Back 160

starts in the cardioacceleratory center, then to the thoracic spinal cord where is enters into the sympathetic trunk ganglion, the travels along the sympathetic cardiac nerves to the SA node and to AV node and on.

Front 161

trace the path of the paraympathetic nerves from the medulla oblongata to the heart.

Back 161

starts and cardioinhibitory center where is enters the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve, travels down the vagus nerve to the SA node and AV node

Front 162

where is the wave for atrial relazation?

Back 162

QRS waves

Front 163

what effect would epinephrine or norepinephrine have on the heart rate?

Back 163

enhanses heart rate and contractility

Front 164

how does the fetal circulation differ from a postnatal infant?

Back 164

fetal circulation has two stuctures that can bypass the pulmonary circuit: foramen ovale and ducuts arteriosus

Front 165

what doe the ductus venosus, ducuts arteriosus, and foramen ovale bypass?

Back 165

lungs

Front 166

what is the fibrous remnant of the ductus arteiosus?

Back 166

ligamentum arteriosum

Front 167

what is the fibrous remnant of the foramen ovale

Back 167

foss ovalis

Front 168

what kind of blood does the umbilical vein carry?

Back 168

oxygen- and nutrient-rich blood

Front 169

what kind of blood does the umbilical arteries carry?

Back 169

waste-laden blood

Front 170

what happens if baroreceptors in the arteries detect and increase in blood pressure?

Back 170

increases parasympathertic output.

Front 171

what is the bainbridge or atrial reflex?

Back 171

stimulates both stretch receptors and SA node

Front 172

why does our heart rate increase when we are nervous?

Back 172

be nervousness stimulates the sympatetic system

Front 173

how does temperature affect the heart?

Back 173

slows to decrease the flow of blood or increase the flow of blood

Front 174

how does blood C levels and blood K levels affect the heart?

Back 174

reduced blood levels of Ca: hypocalcemia depress the heart
above normal levels of Ca: hypercalcemia excitation-contraction mechanism and prolong the plateau phase

excessive K: hyperkalemia- interferes with depolarization (may lead to cardiac arrest)
low levels of K: hypokalemia- heart beats feebly and arrhythmically

Front 175

how does age, gender, and physical conditioning affect heart rate?

Back 175

age: fastest resting HR in fetus and gradually declines over life.
gender: faster in females than in males
physical conditioning: increase HR

Front 176

what is cardiac output?

Back 176

the amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in 1 minute. its is the product of HR and stoke volume

Front 177

how do you calculate cardiac output?

Back 177

SV (ml/beat) x HR (beat/min) = CO (ml/min)

Front 178

what three factors affect how the heart pumps?

Back 178

preload, contractility and afterload

Front 179

which of the three factors affect how heart pumps is most critical for controlling stroke volume?

Back 179

preload

Front 180

what is (Frank-) starling's law?

Back 180

within limits, the greater the stretching of the muscle fibers, the greater the force of contraction

Front 181

how does starling's lae work on the level of the cardiac muscle fiber?

Back 181

resting cardiac muscle fibers are shorter than optimal length

Front 182

what affect contractility of the heart?

Back 182

increase Ca influx, increased sympathetic stimulation, hormones (glucagon, thyroxine, epinephrine), positive inotropic agents, and negative inotropes

Front 183

how does epinephrine work to increase contractility?

Back 183

it binds to cyclic AMP which increase Ca entry which increased contractility

Front 184

what is meant by a positive inotropic agent?

Back 184

factors that increase contractility

Front 185

what are some negative inotropic agents?

Back 185

acidosis (excess H) rising extracellular K levels, and drugs called calcium channel blockers

Front 186

what can cause an increase in Afterload?

Back 186

hypertension increases resistance increasing ESV and reducing SV

Front 187

what is the afterload typically on the aortic vs. the pulmonary valves?

Back 187

80mm Hg in aorti and 8 mm Hg in pulmonary trunk

Front 188

what is an artery?

Back 188

carry blood away from the heart

Front 189

what is the lumen?

Back 189

hole in arteries

Front 190

what is vasodilation?

Back 190

increases in lumen diameter as the smooth muscle relaxes

Front 191

what is vasoconstriction?

Back 191

reduction in lumen diameter as the smooth muscle contracts

Front 192

what are the three layers or tunics of an artery?

Back 192

Tunica interna
tunica media
tunica externa

Front 193

which tunic is the thickest?

Back 193

tunica media

Front 194

what makes up each layer of an artery?

Back 194

tunica interna: simple squamous epithelium (endothelium)
tunica media: elastic connective tissue and smooth muscle fibers
tunica externa: connective tissue and tiny vessels

Front 195

what are the vasa vasorum?

Back 195

vessls that form capillaries and provide blood the external cells of the vessel

Front 196

how do the elastic arteries act as a pressure reservior?

Back 196

they expand and recoil as blood is ejected from the heart.

Front 197

how do arteriole differ in structure from arteries?

Back 197

arterioles tunica media is chiefly smooth muscle not elastic connective tissue

Front 198

what are arteriovenous shunts?

Back 198

an abnormal connection or passageway between an artery and a vein.

Front 199

what is the stucture of a capillary wall?

Back 199

only a single layer of endothelium and a basement membrane

Front 200

what structure is always found at the start of a true capillary?

Back 200

precapillary sphincter

Front 201

what do capillaries do for the cardiovascular system?

Back 201

exchange of gases, wastes and nutrients

Front 202

what is the difference in strucure between continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries, sinusoids, and the capillaries found in the brain?

Back 202

continuous: intercellular clefts, but otherwise uninterrupted
fenestrated: have windows or pores
sinusoids:spaces between cells and basment membrane is incomplete or absent
in brain: have tight juctions

Front 203

what are venules?

Back 203

small vessels that join capillaries and veins

Front 204

what is the structure of a vein and how does it differ from an artery?

Back 204

have three tuncis as arteries, but have thinner tunica media and contain valves

Front 205

what internal structures do veins contain that arteries do not?

Back 205

valves

Front 206

what is blood pressure?

Back 206

pressure on walls of a vessel

Front 207

what is meant byt systolic blood pressure and what would you except the values for this to be?

Back 207

Highest pressure during systole

Front 208

what is meant by diasolic blood pressure and what would you expect the values for this to be?

Back 208

lowest during diastole

Front 209

whatis the mean arterial pressure?

Back 209

pressure that rises and falls as the left ventriclecontracts. mean arterial pressure is about 93 mm Hg

Front 210

in what vessles does blood travel the fastest? the slowest?

Back 210

fastest: popliteal 100-110 mm Hg
slowest: carotid 60 mm Hg

Front 211

what is a normal systolic blood pressure?

Back 211

averages 120 mmHg

Front 212

what is a normal diastolic blood pressure?

Back 212

70-80 mm Hg

Front 213

what factor influece arterial blood pressure?

Back 213

cardiac output
blood volume
peripheral resistance
viscosity
vessel receive sympathetic input only

Front 214

what is a pulse, and how can it be used to determine the health of an individual?

Back 214

the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures. (feel pulse during systole).
pulse pressure is chronically increased by arteriosclerosis

Front 215

what part od the nervous system controls blood vessle diameter, and why is this unusual?

Back 215

peripheral nervous system

Front 216

what is hepatic portal system and why is it important?

Back 216

it drains spleen, stomach, pancreas, gallbladder, and small and large intestines.

glucose is removed and stored as glycogen, blood is detoxified

Front 217

what is the fetal circulation?

Back 217

obtain oxygen and nutrients from maternal circulation
twp arteries off internal iliac arteries run through umbilical cord
umbilical vein returns oxygenated blood
several shunts in fetal circulation

Front 218

what is the circle of willis?

Back 218

a circle of arteries that supply blood to the brain.

Front 219

what is the normal central venous pressure ans where is it measured?

Back 219

Normal CVP can be measured from two points of reference:

Sternum: 0-5 cm H2O
Midaxillary line: 5-10 cm H2O

Front 220

what are the three functions of the lymphatic system?

Back 220

1. draining intersitital fluid
2. transporting dietary lipids
3. protection

Front 221

describe the structure of a lymphatic capillary

Back 221

made of a single layer of squamous epithelial cells
slightly larger than blood capillaries
cells overlap and act as one-way valves
opened by pressure of intersitial fluid
anchoring filaments attach cells to surrounding tissue

Front 222

how does a lymphatic capillary work?

Back 222

by pressure of intersitial fluid

Front 223

where would we find lymphatic capillaries and where are they absent in the body?

Back 223

weave between the tissue cells and blood capillaries in the loose connective tissue of the body.
are absent from bones, teeth, bone marrow, and the entire central nervous system

Front 224

what is lymph?

Back 224

interstitial fluid in the lymphatics

Front 225

is lymph a circulating fluid?

Back 225

no

Front 226

trace the flow of lymph from the lymphatic caillaries to the collecting ducts.

Back 226

lymphatic capillary -> lymphatic vessel -> lymph node -> lymphatic vessel -> lymphatic trunk -> collecting duct

Front 227

what are the two major lymphatic ducts and what areas of the body do they drain?

Back 227

thoracic duct (3/4 of body)
right lymphatic duct (drains right arm and right side of head, neck and upper torso)

Front 228

where do the two major lymphatic ducts empty into the circulatory system?

Back 228

empty into subclavian veins at juction with internal jugular vein

Front 229

where would you find the cisterna chyli?

Back 229

anterior to the fist two lumbar vertebrae as an enlarge sac

Front 230

what is the cisterna chyli?

Back 230

sac that collects lymph from the two large lumbar trunks that drain the lower limbs and form the intestinal trunk that drains the digestive organs.

Front 231

what are the organs of the lymphatic system?

Back 231

primary organs: red bone marrow and thymus gland
secondary organs: lyumph nodes, lymph nodules, and spleen

Front 232

describe the structure of a lymph node?

Back 232

bean shaped
surrounded by a dense fibrous capsule
has connective tissue strands called trabeculae estend inward
internal framework is stroma
has 2 distinct regions: cortex and medulla
found in clusters
vary in size

Front 233

what is the medical name for a swollen lymph node?

Back 233

buboes

Front 234

what is the function of a lymph node?

Back 234

provide biological filtraction
site of cener growth and metastasis.
filters lymph

Front 235

what does albumin do for the blood?

Back 235

albumin is the most abundant blood plasma protein and is produced in the liver and forms a large proportion of all plasma protein.

Front 236

what are lacteal and what do they do?

Back 236

highly specialized lymphatic capillaries

Front 237

what are lymph nodules?

Back 237

is a small circular ball shape organ of the immune system, distributed widely throughout the body and linked by lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes are garrisons of B, T, and other immune cells.

Front 238

what is MALT?

Back 238

mucosa associated lymphoid tissue
the diffuse system of small concentrations of lymphoid tissue found in various sites of the body such as the gastrointestinal tract, thyroid, breast, lung, salivary glands, eye, and skin.
MALT is populated by lymphocytes such as T cells & B cells, as well as plasma cells and macrophages, each of which is well situated to encounter antigens passing through the mucosal epithelium

Front 239

what are peyer's patches?

Back 239

are organized lymphoid tissue They are aggregations of lymphoid tissue that are usually found in the lowest portion of the small intestine ileum in humans
Peyer's patches thus establish their importance in the immune surveillance of the intestinal lumen and in facilitating the generation of the immune response within the mucosa.

Front 240

what are tonsils?

Back 240

Like other organs of the lymphatic system, the tonsils act as part of the immune system to help protect against infection

Front 241

what are the three major tonsils?

Back 241

palatine tonsils, pharyngeal tonsil - adenoid, and lingual tonsils

Front 242

what does the thymus do?

Back 242

helps aid in Pre-T cells from bone marrow to develop into T cells. produces hormone thymosin which aids in maturation of t cells elsewhere in body

Front 243

where is the thymus?

Back 243

in mediastinum above the heart

Front 244

when is the thymus largest?

Back 244

at age 10-12

Front 245

what happens to thymus after its at its largest state?

Back 245

atrophy

Front 246

where is the spleen?

Back 246

upper left quadrant of abdomen

Front 247

what is white pulp?

Back 247

little islands mostly B cells

Front 248

what is red pulp?

Back 248

venous sinuses; spelnic cords (RBCs macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells and granulocytes)

Front 249

what are the three function of the spleen?

Back 249

blood formation
blood filtration
and platelet storage

Front 250

what is resistance?

Back 250

the ability to ward off disease

Front 251

what is susceptibility?

Back 251

lack of resistance

Front 252

what is species resistance?

Back 252

certain species contract certain diseases, while other species does not.

Front 253

what mechanical barriers does the body posses?

Back 253

mucus, hairs, cilia, skin and mucous membranes coughing ans sneezing, production of tears, saliva, urine, defecation, vomiting

Front 254

how does cilia help the body as a mechanical barrier?

Back 254

move subtances away with mucus

Front 255

how does coughing or vomiting help the body as a mechanical barrier?

Back 255

physically remove harmful sustance

Front 256

how does a lowered pH help the body? where does it occur?

Back 256

it is a chemical protection occurs in the skin

Front 257

what is lysozyme? where is it found?

Back 257

digestive enzyme that helps break up bacteria
found in tears, perspiration, saliva and tissue fluids

Front 258

how does you normal microbiorta protect you?

Back 258

bacteria living on skin inhibit the growth of pathogens by producing antiotics

Front 259

how does interferon work?

Back 259

stimulate specific and nonspecific defences
warns surround cells that virus is coming

Front 260

does interferon help the cell that made it?

Back 260

no

Front 261

what is complement system?

Back 261

inactivated proteins that when activated they complement or enhance certain immune, allergic and inflammatory reactions

Front 262

in what three ways does the complement system work?

Back 262

1. activation of inflammation
2. opsonization (enhances phagocytosis
3. cytolysis (membrane attack complex)

Front 263

how does fever help the body fight off infection?

Back 263

causes liver and spleen to sequester iron
increases phagocytosis
inhibits growth of microbes
speeds up body repair
increases body metabolism

Front 264

what are the four cardinal signs of inflammation?

Back 264

heat, swelling, redness, and pain (and sometimes loss of function)

Front 265

what are the three stages of inflammation?

Back 265

1. vasodilation and increased permeability
2. phagocyte migration
3. tissue repair

Front 266

which one account for most of the signs of inflammation

Back 266

vasodilation and increaed permeability of blood vessels

Front 267

what is phagosytosis?

Back 267

the cellular process of phagocytes and protists of engulfing solid particles by the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome.
and in the immune system it is a major mechanism used to remove pathogens and cell debris

Front 268

what are the body's two major types of phagocytes?

Back 268

neutrophils and macrophages

Front 269

what is chemotaxis?

Back 269

phenomenon in which bodily cells, bacteria, and other single-cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment.

Front 270

what steps are involved in phagocytosis?

Back 270

1. chemotaxis
2. adherence
3. ingestion

Front 271

why is adherence of the phagocyte to a bacterium sometimes difficult?
what makes it easier?

Back 271

structures on bacteria make difficult and binding of antibody make easier

Front 272

what are natural killer cells?

Back 272

lymphocytes

Front 273

do the natural killer cells have the same specificity as B cell and T cells?

Back 273

no, they look of abnormal cells

Front 274

what do lymphocytes look for on their target cells?

Back 274

cells that dont display correct MHC antigens
abnormal proteins and tissues

Front 275

what is the "magic word" when talking about immunity?

Back 275

specific

Front 276

what is the "magice number" when talking about immunity?

Back 276

2

Front 277

what is an antigen?

Back 277

any substance that elicits and immune response

Front 278

what characteristics make for a good antigen?

Back 278

large, complex and recognized and foreign

Front 279

what type od molecule fit the description of a good antigen?

Back 279

carbohydrates and proteins

Front 280

what is a hapten?

Back 280

molecules that are small, foreign and complex. to elicit an immune respone, they must piggy-back on a larger molecule, oftern blood proteins

Front 281

what is an epitope?

Back 281

a foreign protein that may result in several different antibodies. each antibody recognizes a different portion of the protein. these regions are epitopes.

Front 282

what is an antigen presenting cell and what does it do?

Back 282

cells that displays and antigen outside of the cell

it shows the antigen to helper T cell until it finds one that has a receptor that matches it.

Front 283

what type of cell doe the antigen presenting cell activate?

Back 283

interleukin - 1

Front 284

what is MHC II?

Back 284

proteins that are found only on certain cells that act in the immune response

Front 285

How is MHC II the same as MHC I and how is it different?

Back 285

In MHC I binded antigens come from within the infected cell while peptides that are displayed byt MHC II come from outside the cell.

Front 286

what is a cytokine?

Back 286

a protein hormone wich regulates normal cel functions, like growth and differentiation. "cell mover"

Front 287

what cytokine does the macrophage produce when the helper T cell binds to it?

Back 287

interleukin-1

Front 288

what cytokine does the helper T cell produce and what does it do?

Back 288

produce: interleukin-1 and interleukin-2 or 4

does: it is a second signal for immunity cell to preceed.

Front 289

what cells produce humoral or anitbody mediated immunity?

Back 289

B cell

Front 290

what teo types of cells are formed when B cells are actived?

Back 290

plasma cells and memory cells

Front 291

what are plasma cells?

Back 291

produce large qualities of their specific antibody into the blood

Front 292

what are memory cells?

Back 292

cells that wait for the next infection

Front 293

what is an antibody?

Back 293

proteins secreted in respone to an antigen by effector B cells called plasma cells and they are capable of binding specifically with that antigen

Front 294

what does an antibody molecule looke like?

Back 294

it is T or Y shaped : four looping polypeptide chaing linked together by disulfide bonds. four chaing combined form a molecule with two identical halves.

Front 295

what are the three type od direct attachment does antibodies have?

Back 295

agglutination
precipitation
neutralization

Front 296

what is agglutination?

Back 296

antigens clump

Front 297

what is precipitation

Back 297

antigens become insoluble

Front 298

what is neurtalization?

Back 298

antigens lose toxic properties

Front 299

what is IgM?

Back 299

is an immunoglobulin class that exist in monomer and pentamer forms. the monomer is attached to the Bcell surface and serves as an antigen receptor. the pentamer circulated in the blood plams and is the first Ig class released by plams cells during the primary response

Front 300

what is IgG?

Back 300

the most abundant and diverse antibody in plasma. it protects against bacteria, viruses, and toxin circulating in blood and lymph, readily fixes complement

Front 301

where would you find IgA?

Back 301

in limited amounts of plasma in body secretion such as saliva, sweat, intestinal juice and milk

Front 302

how does a Tc cell kill a virus infected cell?

Back 302

Tc cells bind to antigens on infected cells and release:
perforins (punch holes in cell memebrane)
Granzymes (proteases that induce apoptosis)

Front 303

what is a primary immune response?

Back 303

the first time you encounter an antigen, you have few B cells or Tc cells against that antigen

Front 304

what is a secondary immune response?

Back 304

the next time you encounter an antigen, you have memory cells so response is much quicker, so you dont come down with the disease

Front 305

what are resistance vessels and why are they called that?

Back 305

they are small arteries and arterioles

called that because of their ability to adjust their caliber

Front 306

which vessesl are called exchange vessels?

Back 306

capillary

Front 307

what are capactiance vessels and why can they hole so much blood?

Back 307

venules and small veins

because of their larger caliber they hold larger volume of blood

Front 308

what factors influence resistance in vessels?

Back 308

the radius of the vessel

Front 309

which ones are the most important in the body?

Back 309

arteriolar radius

Front 310

what is axial streaming and what effect does it have?

Back 310

Axial streaming reduces the viscosity and,
therefore, resistance to flow.

Front 311

why are very high and very low blood pressures dangerous?

Back 311

If arterial
pressure is too high, it is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases,
including stroke and heart failure. When arterial
pressure is too low, blood flow to vital organs is impaired

Front 312

what is meant by compliance?

Back 312

where
V is the change in volume and
PTM is the change
in transmural pressure.

Front 313

what effect does compliance have on blood pressure?

Back 313

more compliant structure exhibits a greater change in
volume for a given transmural pressure change. The lower
the compliance of a vessel, the greater the pressure that will
result when a given volume is introduced.

Front 314

how does contraction and relaxation of the left ventricle affect blood pressure?

Back 314

blood pressure rises and falls with each heartbeat

Front 315

what is pulse pressure?

Back 315

The difference between systolic pressure and diastolic
pressure

Front 316

what is the sum of the cross-sectional area of all the capillaries of the body?

Back 316

approximately 2,000
cm2

Front 317

what is the sum of the cross-sectional area of the aorta?

Back 317

7 cm2

Front 318

how does a health cardiovascular system provide appropriate blood flow to each of the organs umder a wide range of conditions?

Back 318

Maintaining arterial blood pressure within normal limits
Adjusting the output of the heart to the appropriate level
Adjusting the resistance to blood flow in specific organs
and tissues to meet special functional needs

Front 319

how does the pacemaker potential differ from the depolarization seen in heart muscle?

Back 319

does not go through a plateau phases