Statistics

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Statistics

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the collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, and then organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions

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population

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the completed collection of all elements(scores, people, measurements, and so on) to be studied. The collection is complete in the sense that it include all subjects to be studied.

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census

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is the collection of data from every element in a population

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Sample

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is a subcollection of elements drawn from a population

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data

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are observations (such as measurements, graphs, and survey responses) that have been collected

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differential

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every single person

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inferential

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some people, generalize

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quantitative data

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consist of numbers representing counts or measurements

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qualitative data

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can be separarted into different catgories that are distinguished by some non-numeric characteristic (gender, religion)

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Types of qualitatibe data

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discrete, continuous

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discrete

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result when number of possible value is either a finite number or a countable number (that is if the number of possible value is 1 or 1 or 2 and so on)

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observational study

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we observe and measure specfic characteristics, but we dont attempt to modify the subjects being studied

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experiment

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we apply some treatment and then proceed to observe its effects on the subject

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confounding

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occurs in an experiment when effects from two or more variables cannot be distinguished from each other

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replication

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repitition of an experiment

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random sample

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members of the population are selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being selected

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simple random sample

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subjects are selected in such a way that every possible size n has the same chance of being chosen

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sampling

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process of drawing samples from population

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different sampling techniques

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random, systematic, convenience, stratified, cluster

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random sampling

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each member has given an equal chance to be chosen as a sample
(raffle, draw, fish bowl approach, computer generated techniques)

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systematic sampling

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we select some starting point and then select every kth (such as every so(th) element in the population

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convenience sampling

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we simply use results that are readily available (biased)

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stratified sampling

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also known as "proportionate sampling" we subdivide the population into at least two different subgroups (or strata) that share the same characteristic (such as gender or age brackets) then draw a sample from each stratum

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cluster sampling

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aka multi stage sampling, first divide population are into section or clusters then randomly select some of those clusters and then choose all the members from those selected clusters

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sampling error

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is the difference between a sample result and the true population result, such as error results from chance sample fluctuates

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non-sampling error

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occurs when the sample data are incorrectly collected, recorded or analyzed (copying data incorrectly)
technical error

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Forms of presentation of data

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textual, tabular, graphical

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parameter

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a numberical measurement describing some characteristics of a population

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nominal

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a level of measurement characterized by data that consists of names, labels or categories only

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ratio

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the interval level modified to include the natural zero starting point(where 0 indicates that none of the quantity is present). for values at this level, differences and ratios are meaningful

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ordinal

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can be arranged in some order but differences between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless. 1st and 2nd place runner. A and B grades

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interval

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no natural zero, time temperature, aptitude

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histogram

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a bar graph is which the x axes is the class boundary and the y axis is the frequency

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frequency polygraph

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line graph of x axis is x and y axis is frequency

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OGIVE

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line graph in which the x axis is the class boundary and the y axis is the class frequency