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281 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Steps of the IEP process
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1. pre-referral; 2. referral; 3. evaluation; 4. elligibility; 5. development;
6. implementation; 7. annual review |
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Required members of the IEP team
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1. student (if appropriate); 2. general ed teacher (if appropriate); 3. special ed teacher; 4. school district representative; 5. someone who can interpret evaluation results; 6. parent; 7. anyone parent wishes to bring (notify team in advance)
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13 disability categories recognized by IDEA;
bonus: where is ADHD? |
1. Orthopedic Disabilities; 2. Mental Retardation; 3. Autism; 4. Deafness; 5. Deaf-blindness; 6. Hearing Impairment; 7. Emotional and Behavioral Disturbance; 8. Specific Learning Disabilities; 9. Traumatic Brain Injury; 10. Vision Disabilities; 11. Speech-Language Impairment; 12. Multiple Disabilities; 13. Other Health Impairments (includes ADHD)
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8 fundamental provisions of IDEA
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1. FAPE; 2. LRE; 3. IEP; 4. parent's right to notification; 5. individualized instruction for all; 6. necessary related services; 7. federal assistance with excess costs; 8. individulized assessments
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IDEA's procedural safeguards give parents what rights?
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1. NTW: notice of meetings, in a timely manner, in writing; 2. give permission for evaluations or obtain independent evaluations; 3. access child's school records; 4. understand child's placement outside of regular school; 5. resolve complaints: initial resolution meeting, mediation, due process hearing, state appeal, civil action; 6. collect attorneys' fees if prevail in court
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Congress' reasons for passing special education law
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1. families paying for non-public ed far from home; 2. 1 million students with disabs excluded from pub ed; 3. nearly 4 million were not getting appropriate services; 4. students were not getting any related services; 5. believed state/local ed systems could provide approp ed with federal funding help
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IDEA's 3 program plans
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1. Individualized Family Service Plan: ages 0-3; 2. Individualized Education Plan: ages 4-21; 3. IEP with transition: ages 16-21
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how IEP ensures access to general ed curriculum, as required by IDEA
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1. indicates how disability affects involvement and progress; 2. annual goals reflect participation and progress; 3. describes program modifications or assessment accommodations; 4. indicates how student will participate in extracurricular/nonacademic activities; 5. discusses plans for integrating student with nondisab peers
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service providers covered under IDEA (examples)
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special ed teacher; paraprofessional; occupational therapist; physical therapist; resource specialist; consultant; job coach; home/hospital teacher; administrator
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service providers NOT covered under IDEA (examples)
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general ed teacher; school principal; advocates/attorneys; school nurse
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IDEA displinary process/rules
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1. placement in interim alternative educational setting:
- up to 10 days unless - up to 45 days if - must continue to provide services in IEP 2. IEP team meets to determine if: - behavior is manifestation of student's disability OR - behavior is due to failure to implement IEP 3. If YES: IEP team meets to consider adjusting current behavioral plan or conduct FBA to draft initial behavioral plan 4. If NO: student is subject to school's disciplinary policy, but IEP services must continue 5. School or parent has right to appeal team's decision on disciplinary action or placement change; hearing must occur within 20 school days, decision within 10 days |
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IDEA requirements for transition plans
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1. set postsecondary goals; must be appropriate, measurable, evaluation-based
2. goals address training, education, employment, independent living 3. identify transition services and necessary coursework 4. inform student of rights (at age 16) upon reaching age of majority 5. annual updates from age 16 6. summary of student's accomplishments and needs provided with transition plan upon departure from secondary school |
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IDEA 2004 rules related to race/ethnicity
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1. non-discriminatory testing
2. defines homeless children 3. requires school districts to cooperate to expedite evaluation of children changing schools (migrants, homeless) |
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IDEA requirements for "non-discriminatory testing"
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1. not racially or culturally biased
2. administered in language or form most likely to yield useful info about child 3. used in accordance with original purpose 4. includes variety of assessment tools 5. administered by trained/knowledgeable person |
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Criticisms/controversy about special ed
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1. ineffective/unnecessary
2. too costly 3. discriminatory 4. unfair administrative burden 5. serves too many students 6. segregates studetns |
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Law: Section 504 of Rehabilitation Act, 1973
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1. basic civil rights for people with disabilities
2. set stage for special ed law |
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Law: Education for Handicapped Children Act (EHA), 1975
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1. FAPE
2. LRE |
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Law: 1986 EHA Reauthorization
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1. adds infants & toddlers
2. adds IFSPs |
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Law: IDEA (EHA renamed)
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1. adds transition plans
2. new categories: autism, TBI 3. 1990 |
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Law: ADA
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1. nondescrimination in workplace, transportation, telecom, public access
2. covers college kids with disabilities 3. introduces concept of "normalization" 4. 1990 |
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Law: 1997 IDEA Reauthorization
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1. adds behavior assessments, intervention plans
2. adds ADHD to OHI category |
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Law: No Child Left Behind Act (ESEA reuathorization)
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1. national testing for 95% of students
2. reading and math proficiency for all by 2012 3. 2001 |
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Law: 2004 IDEA Reauthorization
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1. new category: specific learning disabilities
2. modified procedures for IEPs, evaluation, discipline 3. must participate in state/district testing |
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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
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1954, no more "separate but equal"
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Pennsylvania ARC v. Commonwealth of Pa.
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1972, education for students with mental retardation
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Mills v. Board of Education of D.C.
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1972, education for all students with disabilities
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Cedar Rapids School District v. Garrett
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2000s, school pays for and provides health support during education
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Wayzata Independent School District v. A.C.
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2000s, school district must pay for private school if cannot provide necessary services
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Describe the special education atmosphere in the 1800s
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optimistic, energetic, caring
first special educator: Jean Itard, France first in USA: Eduoard Sequin, brought Itard's ideas, founded AAMR in 1876 famous educators: - Maria Montessori, Italy, cognitive disabilities - Thomas Gallaudet, U.S., deaf - Samuel Gridley Howe, U.S., blind - Elizabeth Farrell, U.S., sp.ed in public schools |
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Describe the special education atmospher in the early 1900s (pre-WWII)
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low period
overcrowded special schools many still left out of education neglect, poor care, segregation of kids with disabilities disillusionment over not finding a "cure" for disabilities early activists: professional groups - CEC - ASHA - APTA - AOTA - NASW |
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Describe the special education atmosphere after WWII
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period of activism
age of opportunity and prosperity across U.S. led to more efforts for students with disabilities rise of civil rights movement, created momentum for disability cause activists: volunteers, parents - ARC - LDA - UCP people with disabilities organized: - World Institute on Disability - National Council on Disability |
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Criticisms of IDEA regulations and IEP process
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special ed teachers: too much paperwork
general ed teachers: - not prepared to teach kids with disabilities - not enough time to collaborate with special ed teachers administrators: - creates antagonistic/litigious relationship between schools & parents - too complicated/confusing states: too costly congress: results in unequal treatment of students with disabilities |
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handicap
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limit, constraint
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outcome
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result of action
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FAPE
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free appropriate public education
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LRE
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least-restrictive environment
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IFSP
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individualized family service plan (ages 0-3 years)
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transition
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movement from school to college or adult world
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normalization
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enabling person to live as closely as possible to the way general society lives
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universal design
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design of structures and products so people with or without disabilities can use them
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special education
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FILeRS: FAPE with IEP in LRE with Related Services
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categorical approach to identifying students with disabilities
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definition of students based on 13 categories specified by IDEA
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mainstreaming
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inclusion of special students in general ed classrooms
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prevalence
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total number of cases at a given time
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excess cost
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cost of educating a special ed student beyond cost of educating general ed student (typically costs twice as much)
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IEP
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individualized education program: framework for providing services and evaluating progress
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authentic assessment
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evaluation of student's abilities based on classroom work
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curriculum-based measurement
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day-to-day data gathering from classroom tasks to evaluate student's performace and effectiveness of teaching methods
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portfolio assessment
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evaluation of student's progress based on works from class, awards, etc. selected by student
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functional behavioral assessment
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evaluation of student behavior to determine the nature of the behavior, reasons for the behavior and under what conditions behavior occurs
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procedural safeguards
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provisions of IDEA to ensure rights and inclusion of parents
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accommodations
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changes in how student receives information or demonstrates learning
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adaptations
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adjustments in test-taking rules or environment
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array of services
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selection of services, in any order, that is flexible and responsive to a student's needs
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continuum of services
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a.k.a. cascade of services, incrementally increasing degrees of restriction or separation of child from general ed classroom for specific services
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high-stakes testing
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system of rewarding schools or punishing schools based on students' standardized test results
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low-stakes testing
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instead of penalties for low achievement by high numbers of difficult to teach students, schools receive more help based on test results
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multicultural education
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education that supports and extends concepts from students' cultural backgrounds
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bilingual education
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develops competence in English and native language; uses native language to help teach English
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English language learners
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a.k.a. limited English proficiency students; students whose native languages are not English; most rapidly growing segment of U.S. students
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non-discriminatory testing
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required by IDEA when determining eligibility for special ed
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theory of multiple intelligences
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developed by Howard Gardner, intelligence consists of 8 types
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8 types of intelligence considered in theory of multiple intelligences
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logical/mathematical
visual/spatial verbal/linguistic musical/rhythmic bodily/kinesthetic interpersonal intrapersonal naturalistic |
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system of multicultural pluralistic assessment (SOMPA)
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developed by Jane Mercer, test aimed at reducing bias in IQ testing; significantly reduces African American and Hispanic misidentification
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cultural pluralism
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social model that allows people to maintain ethnic languages, cultures and traditions while encouraging their participation in society
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melting pot
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social model that requires all people in U.S. to drop unique ethnic aspects and fit into homogenized notion of "American identity"
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overrepresentation/
underrepresentation |
occurrence of more or fewer students in a category compared to their prevalence in the general population; minorities are overrepresented in special ed and underrepresented in gifted ed
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cross-cultural dissonance
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misalignment of home and school cultures, can cause friction or misunderstanding between educators and students/parents
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code switching
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using English and a native language within the same communication; NOT a disorder - a sign of deveoping dual-language proficiency
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dialect
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form of a language that varies from its literate or standard form; example: ebonics
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Headstart, Early Headstart
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underutilized federal programs that show early intervention works to identify children with disabilities; includes initial (baseline) health and development assessments for children from low-income families
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basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS)
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conversational language skills: 2-3 years to learn this level in a second language
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cognitive/academic linguistic proficiency (CALP)
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conceptual, complex language skills needed for academic tasks: 5-7 years to learn this level in a second language
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cooperative learning
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children work together on academic tasks, assisting and motivating each other
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scaffolding
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instructional tactic that gives students temporary support as they learn a new skill
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direct reading instruction
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systematic instruction of decoding skills: phonemic awareness, sound-letter correspondence, sounding out, blending words
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Sam Kirk
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1963: Father of Learning Disabilities field; developed Illinois test for learning styles
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Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard
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1799: Father of special education; taught basic living skills to "wild boy" thought to have MR
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Elizabeth Farrell
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1898: brought special ed. to public schools
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Smiley Blanton
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1914: opened first speech clinic at U of Wisconsin
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Robert West
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1925: Father of S/L field; founded precursor to ASHA
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Lee Travis and Wendell Johnson
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1900s: developed S/L program at U of Iowa; promoted expansion of field at organization and national levels
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Don Deshler and Jean Shumaker
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2000s: U of Kansas colleagues developed "learning strategies" to help middle and high school LD students
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Don Hammill and Steve Larsen
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1974: published research showing direct instruction works, ending "process vs. product" debate with Frostig's visual perceptual theory
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Jim Lent
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1976: Mimosa Cottage Project showed M.R. students could learn complex tasks and life/job skills
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Benjt Nirje
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1960s: Father of normalization movement
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Madeline Will
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1986: OSEP director who began push for inclusion
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Otitis media
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middle ear infection --> hearing difficulties
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hypertext/hypermedia
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pop-up text/media on computers to expand explanation of material, vocabulary
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computer-assisted instruction
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use of computer functions to supplement teaching; enhanced explanations of concepts; extra drill and practice; translation of print text to audio/speech; additional motivation for learning via web-based learning, peer-peer e-mail
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social competence
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ability to perceive and interpret social situations, generate appropriate social response and interact with others
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inactive learner
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student who does not approach learning task purposefully; not actively involved, asking questions, seeking help, extra reading
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attribution
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self-explanation of causes of success or failure
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motivation
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inner drive that energizes and directs behavior
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ADHD
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attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity more frequent and more severe than typical peers, occurring in more than one setting
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learning disability
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unexpected underachievement, possibly due to information processing problem, possibly connected to central nervous system malfunction
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Percentage of LD students graduating
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63%
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Percentage of ADHD students with LDs
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70%
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Percentage of LD students with poor social skills
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75%
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Percentage of LD students among all students
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6%
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Percentage of LD students among students with disabilities
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<50%
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Percentage of LD students among college students
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2%
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Percentage of LD students among college students with disabilities
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40%
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Characteristics of student with Learning Disabilities
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potential is greater than performance (unexpected underachievement); not caused by other factors; often manifest in language-related areas; learning problems are specific and confined to one or two cognitive areas; normal intelligence; problems connected to central nervous system, information processing deficits or ability to learn -- characteristics not in definitions: does not learn in same way as peers; does not learn as efficiently as peers; resistant to gen. ed. interventions; may coexist with ADHD
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controversy/criticism of LD category
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not specific enough, results in dumping ground for low achievers; inconsistently diagnosed state-by-state; huge category; no uniform classification system
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types of LDs
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general unexpected underachievement; reading/LDs - acquire skills differently, slower; math/LDs - difficulty retrieving from long-term memory; coexisting LDs/ADHD
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How to identify LDs
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"discrepancy formula" determines whether gap between achievement and potential is significant and cause of academic failures; IQ test vs. standardized test; IDEA '04: discrepancy does not have to be "severe" if student does not respond to validated interventions in gen. ed. classroom
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Possible causes of LDs
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low oxygen --> brain damage; genetics --> reading problems; poverty --> limited health care, unstable/unsupportive environment
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Possible prevention of LDs
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* if don't know cause, it's hard to prevent; early intervention builds foundation for reading; systematic academic intervention, using learning strategies, peer tutoring, direct instruction
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Academic signs/characteristics of LD student
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inability to solve problems; inefficient info processing abilities; inability to generalize; unexpected underachievement; resistant to treatment; difficult to teach; uneven academic abilities; inactive learning style; poor basic language skills; poor basic reading/decoding skills
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Social signs/characteristics of LD student
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immature; socially unacceptable; misinterprets social and nonverbal cues; makes poor decisions; victimized; unable to predict social consequences; unable to follow social conventions/manners; rejected; naive; shy; dependent
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Behavioral signs/characteristics of LD student
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inattentive; unmotivated/negative attribution; distractable; hyperactive; impulsive; poorly coordinated; disorganized; dependent
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learned helplessness
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student is too dependent on others, expects failure, fears failure, has low self-esteem
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key strategies for addressing attention deficits: impulsivity
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peer behavior management: students reinforce positive behavior; students do not feed attention-seeking negative behavior; students track + and - behavior
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key strategies for addressing attention deficits: inattention
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organizational skill development: peer assistance; imporved communication between home and school; rewards; structured routines, lists
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root characteristics of academic underachievement in LD student
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lack of motivation/poor attribution; inattention; inability to generalize; faulty info processing; insufficient problem-solving skills
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teaching methods for lack of motivation/poor attribution
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show relationship between effort and accomplishment; teach learning strategies that work, result in accomplishment
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teaching methods for inattention
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teach organizational skills; use advance organizers for lessons; peer assistance; structured routines, lists; communication between home and school
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teaching methods for inability to generalize
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show connections between familiar problems and new problems; gradually broaden categories and show similarities
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teaching methods for faulty info processing
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repeat important info; organize content systematically; provide relevant info; use exmaples familiar to students; associate content with familiar info
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teaching methods for insufficient problem-solving skills
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promote thinking skills: classifying - grouping based on common characteristics; associating - relate info by a common denominator; sequencing - putting items in order in memory
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assessment of LD student's social skills
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standardized tools: Walker-McConnell Scales of Social Competence and School Adjustment; School Social Behvior Scales; must observe problems in more than one setting by more than one person
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steps to improve LD student's social skills
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social skills training programs - use modeling, coaching, practice and feedback to address specific skill deficits; responsive classroom approach - direct instruction on social skills; pairing with non-LD students for modeling, support
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foundation skills for reading (early intervention is critical!)
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phonological awareness; letter-sound correspondence; decoding; sight word recognition; fluency; comprehension
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children at risk for developing LDs
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not talking by age 3; low birth weight; premature babies; poor children; kids with communication problems; kids not developing reading foundation skills
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examples of validated teaching methods for LDs
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direct instruction of specific skills; lots of drill, repetition, practice; small group work; breaking units into small segments; teaching learning strategies
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tactics for improving reading comprehension
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teacher-led questioning; text enhancements: illustrations, study guides; student restates content of passage; skill-based insruction with rewards; oral reading for fluency; story maps; motivation: reading is key to successful future; protection from embarrassment in front of class
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elements of Learning Strategies approach
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especially powerful for LD kids, who lack strategic skills; highly structured materials; advance organizers; mnemonics; build-in direct evaluation (CBM)
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characteristics of collaborative teaching environment
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open, continuous communication; voluntary participation; parity between teachers; shared goals; continual evaluation of student; shared decision-making; pooled resources; trust/respect; scheduled planning time
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including LD kids in general ed classroom
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* most need some assistance/accomodations; adapt textbooks, instructional materials; more instructional time; assitance choosing which learning strategy to apply; tutoring for academic skills
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curriculum options for LD kids
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1. general curriculum; 2. life skills; 3. functional; 4. vocational ** teacher must recognize when #1 is not appropriate/useful for student
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identification of kids with LDs
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most identified by educator; most identified in 3rd grade; most parents do not suspect LDs; family support from educators/admins is critical - especially emotional support
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elements of successful parent-school conferences
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comfortable setting; educator listens; teacher writes down signif info parent shares; parent knows how many meetings, how long they will last; clearly stated purpose; clear, precise info is presented; info is restated with examples; no jargon; professional attitude; feedback on child's academic, social performance; results/notes on meeting recorded; educators flexible in scheduling
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discrepancy formula
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determines whether gap between achievement and potential is significant and cause of academic failures
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lateral dominance
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preference for using either right or left side for motor skills - some believe mixed dominance is connected to poor reading
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generalization
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transfer of learning from particular instances to other environments, circumstances
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classifying (chunking)
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organizational thinking skill: grouping items in terms of common characteristics - assists with memorizing
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association
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organizational thinking skill: ability to see relationships among different concepts
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sequencing
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organizational thinking skill: putting items or information in order (size, chronological, etc.) to aid memory
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information processing theory
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from Janet Lerner: compares function of human brain to computer - input stimuli/senses --> memory/brain --> output devices/communication, action, behavior
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phonological awareness
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awareness of sound segments in words
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Ladder to literacy
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from J.Jenkins: 1. phonological awareness; 2. letter-sound correspondence; 3. decoding; 4. sight word recognition; 5. fluency; 6. comprehension
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early intervention success rate: reading
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70%
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literacy
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not just decoding or comprehension; reflection of a greater set of skills and abilities that include reflective thinking
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story maps
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diagrams used to assist students in organizing and recalling elements from stories; help students remember content by requiring them to paraphrase the informatoin
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learning strategies
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from D.Deshler/J.Schumaker, U-Kansas: research-based method, teaches students tactics for learning and remembering information more efficiently
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accommodating for inclusive environments - steps
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1. provide structure and a standard set of expectations; 2. adjust instructional materials and activities; 3. give students feedback and reinforce success; 4. make tasks interesting
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accommodating for inclusive environments for LD students - examples
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1. structure/expectations: help students develop organizational skills, establish rules for academic and social activities; 2. individualize instruction, break tasks down into chunks; 3. point out good behavior, inform students when not meeting expectations; 4. make assignments interesting/novel; vary format of instruction/activities
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PROJECT
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homework strategy to teach students how to complete homework: Prepare monthly planning calendar and weekly study schedule; Record and ask for assignment clarification; Organize - BEST (Break into parts, Estimate number of study sessions, Schedule sessions, Take your materials); Jump to it; Engage in work; Check your work; Turn in assignment
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Tips for teachers assigning and adapting homework
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1. make sure students can complete assignment; 2. write assignment on board; 3. explain assignment carefully; 4. remind students of due date periodically; 5. coordinate with other Ts to avoid assigning too much; 6. establish with Ps and other Ts standard policy for late/missed assignments; 7. provide one-on-one assistance; 8. allow for alternative formats or use of learning tools; 9. adjust assignment length; 10. provide access to peer tutor
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communication signals
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announce some immediate event, person, action or emotion
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communication symbols
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used to relay messages: speech = vocal symbols, letters = written symbols, sign language = gestural symbols
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communication process
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SENDER: thought --> signal/symbol --> delivery mechanism --> MESSAGE; RECEIVER: receiving mechanism --> signl/symbol --> thought
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communication
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process of exchanging knowledge, ideas, opinions, feelings through use of verbal or nonverbal language
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language
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rule-based method of communication involving comprehension and use of signs and symbols by which ideas are expressed
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speech
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vocal production of language
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respiratory system
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takes in oxygen and expels gases; activates vocal system when expelling air; diaphragm, chest, throat muscles
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vocal system
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production of voice, by expelled air vibrating vocal folds in larynx (vibrating system)
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resonating system
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throat, mouth, nasal cavities that help shape speech sounds
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speech mechanisms
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tongue, soft and hard palates, teeth, lips, jaw - shape voice into speech sounds
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speech impairments
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abnormal speech that is unintelligible, unpleasant, or interferes with communication
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three major types of speech impairments
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1. articulation problems - most common - flawed process of producing sounds; 2. fluency problems - abnormal rate and flow pattern of speech, includes stuttering; 3. voice problems - uncommon in school children, can be sign of health problem - abnormal pitch or loudness
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language impairments
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difficulty in mastering or inability to master the various systems of rules in language, which then interferes with communication
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language delay
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development of language skills in correct sequence but slower than peers; common in MR children
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language difference
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non-native English speaking, or speaking non-standard English; NOT an impairment
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phonology
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the sound system of language, includes rules that govern various sound combinations
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morphology
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set of rules that govern the parts that form the meanings and structures of words, includes prefixes and suffixes
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syntax
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where a word is placed in a sentence or phrase, helps determine the meaning of the communication
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content
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reflects the intent and meanings of spoken or written statements
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semantics
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the system where the intent and meanings of words aand sentences make up the content of the communication
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use
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application of language in various communications according to the social context of the situation
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pragmatics
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the study of language in context
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communicative competence
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from Norma Ruiz: what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately - what may be said and what should not be said; when, where, and by whom; for what purposes - in addition to the linguistic knowledge necessary to produce grammatical utterances
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Test of Language Development
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standardized test used to identify S/L impairments
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four kinds of articulation errors
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omission - leaving out sound or group of sounds in a word; substitution - one sound used for another in a word; distortion - variation of intended sound; addition - extra sound inserted to one correctly pronounced
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ESSAY: What does it mean to have a disability?
|
Definitions of disabilities vary by culture, attitudes, beliefs, orientation, discipline; some view in terms of differences certain individuals have from the majority - societal habit of focusing on people's differences; some view in terms of ability to function in society or limitations not imposed by external factors; some view problem is societal organization, not individual characteristics - debatable whether a disability must also be a handicap for participation in mainstream society
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ESSAY: Where did special ed come from and why did it develop?
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disabilities documented way back (Roman times), not treated as people - freaks, entertainment; late 1700s people experimented with helping some learn skills (Itard); attitude shift from shunned to protected; 1800s Seguin, first treatise on sp.ed., Howe, Gallaudet first institutions, Farrell programs in pub schools; early 1900s compulsory school laws put kids with disabs in schools in larger numbers; sp. schools overcrowded; attitude shifts negative: disillusionment, fear of unfamiliar, exclusion; post-WWII age of opportunity spawns new efforts to understand, teach disabs; today's special ed resulted from disability rights movement of 1970s-80s: Section 504, ADA, EHA (IDEA); EHA/IDEA because families paid for schooling (1 mill. excluded from pub sch.); many kids w/disabs were not identified; Congress thought states could deliver with fed financial assistance (up to 40% of extra cost); Mills v. D.C. Bd. of Ed.: all students entitled to free public ed
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ESSAY: What are some solutions to problems faced by students with disabs and the educators charged with meeting their needs?
|
responsive, flexible, creative problem solving; eds more responsive to families, listen to what they need; sp.educators must develop goals, articulate field's purpose, standards, expectations; sp.educators must rely on research-based, validated techniques
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ESSAY: What is the role of the IEP team?
|
set goals and objectives for student, with normalization in mind; set benchmarks - evaluation for progress toward goals; determine necess services; develop educ plan that directs educators' efforts to move student toward goals and objs; meets (at least annually) to review/adjust goals, services, placement
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ESSAY: What factors must be considered when determining the LRE for individual students?
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goals and objs; desired adult outcomes for student; array of services needed to work toward IEP goals/objs; placement that will enable student to make best progress when receiving each of those services - can vary by service; whether student will benefit more from inclusive setting for a service or from a self-contained setting; some researchers argue when possible, student's preference/experiences should be considered
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ESSAY: What are the different educational placement options that make up the continuum of services for special education?
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gen.ed classroom with consultative/collaborative t; gen.ed classroom with co-teaching sp.ed and gen.ed Ts; gen.ed with scheduled pull-in support from specialists; gen. ed. with periodic itinerant, consultative svcs; pull-out to resource room for some instruction; partially self-contained classroom; self-contained sp.ed classroom within reg. school; special (center) school; residential special school; home/hospital education
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ESSAY: How should the array of educational services and suports available to students with disabilities be implemented?
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identify placement based on individual's needed services/supports; at required intensity; for duration needed to meet goal/obj; with collaboration among eds, admins, fams, community - provide frequent feedback/updates to families (not just when there is a problem); conduct frequent evals of student progress to determine if interventions/techniques are effective or should be changed; flexible program with creative, engaging, fun, motivating techniques and materials
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ESSAY: What is multicultural and bilingual special education, and who is served by such programs?
|
multicultural: sp.ed designed to include and celebrate various cultures of its students, incorporating cultural references, traditions, values into curric and lessons; bilingual: sp.ed designed to provide instruction in student's native language while also developing English language proficiency, uses native language to explain difficult concepts or teach academic skills and encourages gradual transferral of skills to English; served: growing number of students in U.S., especially Spanish speakers, also Native Ams., who have high rate of disabilities compared to other racial/ethnic groups
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ESSAY: In what ways can biases occur in the identification and assessment process?
|
Cross-cultural dissonance or outright racial/ethnic bias --> lack of understanding of different cultural norms, mistaking certain cultural behaviors for indicators of disability, especially behavior issues or learning difficulties; Use of standardized test, especially IQ tests - culturally loaded content; difficulty with English among ELLs - sometimes construed as language impairment instead of difference or delay; in testing, administrator is not proficient in student's native lang, no accommodations made for lang differences
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ESSAY: Why are educators so concerned about culturally or linguistically diverse children?
|
many at risk for disabs due to low socio-economic status - low birth weight, high mobility, poor nutrition, no vaccinations, limited health care and prenatal care, poor neighborhoods/schools; many at risk for low acad achievement, dropping out; cultural diffs btw home and school make understanding appropriate behavior difficult; achieving ESL proficiency is difficult while also learning in Engl; Ts unprepared, unfamiliar with various cultures
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ESSAY: What is considered overrepresentation in special education and underrepresentation in ed for the gifted?
|
overrep: proportion of students from a particular race/ethnicity classified as having a disab is larger than proportion of race/eth in general student population - example: af.am. in MR; underrep: when proportion of a race/ethnicity in gifted prog is smaller than proportion of race/eth in gen population - ex: asian ams.
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ESSAY: How can school personnel integrate childern's home cultures and languages in to the educational environment and curric?
|
increase communication opps btw school and fams despite lang diffs - consider fam's preferred/most effective comm mechanism; invite members of fam and community, esp cultural leaders, to participate in classroom and extracurric activities; use cultural references and materials throughout curric; design lessons incorporating cultural traditions, holidays; put posters on walls referencing diff cultures, have items available in classroom, use them in lessons; for lang, if possible use bilingual Ts or non-biling Ts make effort to learn basics of student's language; encourage cooperative learning and study groups
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ESSAY: What measures can be taken to reduce the overrepresentation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in disability categories and their underrep in gifted?
|
eliminate biases from identification/assessment process; address causes of disabilities unusually prevalent in certain ethnic groups; eliminate poverty; broaden concept of abilities - adjust societal attitude toward disabs; include all in high stakes testing; use culturally sensitive and liguistically appropriate curricula and instruction; include diverse students' fams and communities in school life
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ESSAY: What are the key features of most definitions of learning disabs?
|
normal IQ; discrepancy btw IQ and achievement; probs often manifested in lang-related areas; not due to MR, lack of ed opps, poverty, cultural diffs, other disabs; central nervous system, information processing deficits, inability to learn; probs confined to one or two cognitive areas
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ESSAY: Why is there a call for a new definition of LDs, and how might it be different?
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huge category, increasing over past 10 ys - 6% of all students and more than 50% of sp.ed students have LD; inconsistent identification, use of LD as dumping ground for low achievers; new definition: change so fewer students fit; remove discrepancy formula; use "unexpected underachievement;" include "resistant to treatment;" premit early intervention to prevent reading probs
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ESSAY: Why is it correct to consider LDs a lifelong condition?
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though students can learn strategies for coping with LDs, they never go away, so will need those strategies their whole lives; reading probs can limit postsecondary options; social competence probs result in lack of friends, social isolation; high dropout rates negatively affect employment/income potential
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ESSAY: What constitutes an appropriate education for LD students, and in what setting should it be provided?
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access to gen.ed curric, instruction using validated practices, necessary accommodations, array of services at necessary intensity and individualization; setting determined by intensity of services and supports needed
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How might the array of services be reconceptualized for students with LDs?
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stronger, more proactive early intervention; longer prereferral phase; application of validated practices in gen.ed program; more accommodations; systematic levels of more and more intensive intervention to identify those resistant to treatment
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ESSAY: How do language delays, language differences and language impairments differ?
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only language impairments qualify as a disability; impairments mean lang is developed in abnormal sequence; delays are development of lang in normal sequence but slower than typical learner - can be precursor to lang impairment but not always; differences are result of student speaking lang other than English or regional dialect, not a disab but can result in misidentification for spec.ed
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ESSAY: How can teachers enhance language development and help to remediate a language impairment?
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Ts match own language to student's level; adjust/modify/supplement instruction; anchor lessons to student's experience and culture; give multiple examples; use concrete referents; use visual organizers; identify predictable story elements; modify curric; create language-rich classrooms; collaborate with SLPs
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ESSAY: What is alternative and augmentative communication, and how does it benefit students with speech and language impairments?
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AAC uses technology to enable people with S/L imps to communicate; examples include picture boards (low-tech) or speech-synthesizers (high-tech); can give students with S/L imps greater access to gen.ed curric by enabling them to communicate with gen.ed Ts and non-disab peers; facilitates lang remediation and development by enabling them to communicate while learning skills
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ESSAY: How might the general education and special education curricula be modified to better develop the language and literacy abilities of students? How can SLPs help?
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more direct instruction for language development and foundation skills for literacy (phonemic awareness, letter-sound connection); more supports and accommodations; language-related games, activities, classroom materials; SLPs provide assessment and identification, individualized therapy, collaborative teaching, family intervention and follow-through
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ESSAY: How are levels of severity and outcomes of mental retardation grouped?
|
mild = IQ 50-69, learning difficulties, able to work, maintain good social relationships, contribute to society; moderate = 35-49, marked developmental delays during childhood, some degree of independence in self-care, adequate comm and acad skills, require supports to live and work in community; severe = 20-34, continuous need of supports; profound = below 20, severe limitation in self-care, continence, communication, mobility, in continuous need of supports
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ESSAY: How are the causes of mental retardation categorized and what are some major causes?
|
grouped by time of onset. prenatal, before birth: mother's intake of substances (FAS), genetics (PKU, down, fragile-X), hydrocephaly; perinatal, during birth: anoxia, asphyxia (brain damage), low birth weight, head trauma; postnatal, after birth: lead poisoning, physical abuse, societal biases
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ESSAY: What are the four sources of supports for MR?
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natural: family, friends, neighbors; nonpaid: community organizations, clubs; generic: services available to general public; specialized: sp.ed., vocational ed., related sp.services
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ESSAY: What are two specialized instructional approaches for students with mental retardation?
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functional/life skills curric: instruction in skills and behaviors needed to live independently in society, such as responsibility, money management, safety, cooking, job skills, navigating public transit; community-based learning: instruction in life and/or job skills through real-life experiences in the community rather than simulated experiences in classroom
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ESSAY: How can educators be more effective when working with families of students with mental retardation?
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develop meaningful partnerships with fams; recognize all signif fam members (immediate and extended); understand fam support extends well beyond school years (whole life for many); include whole fam in info and planning mtgs for student's ed.programs
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ESSAY: What are some examples of the four levels of supports and how do they make a differenc ein the lives of people with MR?
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primary goal for MR is to live with autonomy and self-direction, normalized living and satisfying personal relationships; flexible and responsive system of supports is necessary; natural: family, friends, neighbors - easy-to-access support system for daily needs, friendships help build social and comm skills; non-paid: Best Buddies, church groups, Special Olympics - create opps for friendships, social interaction, skill development; general: library programs, public transit - enable person to participate in society with assistance; specialized: school, voc program, job coach - enable student to acquire important skills for participating in society, create access to work force
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obturator
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device that creates a closure between the oral and nasal cavities when the soft palate is missing or damaged, helps compensate for cleft palate
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ESSAY: Discuss three of the cited criticisms of special education, and the respective merits or weaknesses of those arguments.
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discriminatory: merit= improve assess to reduce race/eth bias and improve placement to better fit student's needs, but will not necess result in more inclusion - most imporant issue is what child needs; too costly (districts, admins): merit= if no additional funds from fed govt money to provide sp.ed svcs comes from other ed progs, weakness= maj of sp.ed kids served in gen.ed classroom so T prep and collab can control need for extra funds, benefit to society is worth it in lower incarceration or burden on soc.svcs; serves too many students (cong): merit= classification of some disabs needs fine-tuning and race/eth bias can reduce rolls further
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ESSAY: Discuss the implications of IDEA ’04 regarding FAPE and the discipline of students with disabilities.
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'04 instituted discipline rules to appease Ps and Ts concerns about safety - if sp.ed students are exempt from discipline - and Ps and advocates concerns about providing FAPE - if sp.ed students are subject to same discip rules as non-disab students
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ESSAY: Describe a culturally or linguistically diverse minority group, including ethnic background, language differences, school and academic performance, family involvement, and social and educational needs.
|
Am.Indians: hundreds of tribes, hundreds of diff langs - students are ELLs; high incidence of pov and related probs - students are high risk for disabs; some cultural norms differ from euro-am. - cross-cultural dissonance can create misunderstandings; extended fam/tribal unit plays role in raising each child - important to involve in classroom/school events
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reciprocal teaching
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teaching tactic where Ts and Ss switch roles predicting, summarizing, questioning and clarifying reading passages
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ESSAY: Explain the concept of nondiscriminatory testing.
|
Assessment that properly takes into account a child's cultural and linguistic diversity.
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ESSAY: Explain how legislators addressed the IQ discrepancy concerns in IDEA ’04.
|
IQ disc formulas are used to determine LDs - states set own standards, but discrepancy btw IQ and acad perf must be present; due to concerns about discrim IQ tests and necessity that student fail dramatically before qualifying, '04 added discrepancy need not be severe if research-validated interventions in gen.ed classroom have no impact; benefit=children/fams no longer have to wait until student "fails enough" to warrant classification
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ESSAY: Differentiate between speech impairments and language impairments by describing each one and giving an example of each.
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sp.imp is difficulty delivering oral comm, examples: stuttering, voice in unusual/annoying pitch or volume, substitution of one sp.sound for another; lang.imp is difficulty understanding, processing or formulating lang, whether reading, writing or speaking, examples: no phono awareness, incorrect syntax
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articulation problems
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most common speech problem; flawed process of producing speech sounds; consider age, culture, environment when diagnosing
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fluency problems
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problems with rate and flow pattern of speech; includes stuttering; young child's 3-5 yrs) dysfluency NOT impairment
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voice problems
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uncommon in young, but sign of possible health issue; unusual pitch or loudness
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age at which 90% of children pronounce all 24 speech sounds correctly
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8.5 yrs.
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three areas to test for speech problems
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voice, fluency, articulation
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three areas to test for language problems
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form, content, use
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why are language impairments potentially more serious than speech impairments?
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because they impact many aspects of classroom experience - speak, write, comprehend language, social interaction
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S/LI relationship to LDs, by age
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clear association btw LI and LD; population of S/LI > LD up to 8 yrs.; LD > S/LI after 8 and increasingly
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where S/LI problems are addressed
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Since 1970s: minor problems in gen.ed classroom with SLP assistance; major problems pull-out to SLP
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causes of speech impairments
|
brain damage, respiratory or speech mechanism malfunction, errors in use of speech mechanism, malformation of articulators (ex: cleft palate)
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cleft palate prevalence
|
1/500 Asian Ams, 1/750 whites, 1/2000 Af.Ams
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causes of language impairments
|
brain injury: aphasia; health: otitis media, viral encephalitis; genetics; environment: quality/quantity of early language input, opps to develop cognition/language
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prevention of S/L impairments
|
immunization, prenatal care (folic acid during pregnancy reduces chance of cleft lip/palate 25-50%), reduce poverty, better nutrition
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signs of speech impairments
|
consisten age-inappropriate articulation errors, dysfluencies, poor voice quality, excessively loud or soft voice
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signs of language impairments
|
unable to follow oral directions, unable to match letters w/sounds, inadequate vocabulary, poor concept formation, difficulty conveying messages, difficulty expressing personal needs
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environmental restructuring
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teaching students about behavioral relationships (causes and effects of actions) to change behavior to be instructive/supportive of peers
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impacts of speech impairments
|
limited or no academic impact; difficulty in social interactions, desire to withdraw from such situations, possible behavior problems due to lack of acceptance/interaction
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impacts of language impairments
|
social competence: inferior social skills, difficulty with conflict resolution, desire to withdraw; cognitive/academic performance: difficulty mastering reading, link to LDs at school age
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concurrence of language impairments with LDs
|
80%
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|
recommended preschool child-staff ratios for language prep and school readiness (from Am Public Health Assoc and Am Acad of Pediatrics)
|
3:1 infants, 4:1 2 yr-olds, 7:1 3-yr-olds
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early intervention tactics for language development
|
foster cooperative play, encourage spontaneous talking, facilitate peer social interactions, develop responsiveness with conversational partners, guide parents in creation of pro-language home environ.
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teaching tactics for preschool language development
|
connect oral, written and print lang through telling, reading, enacting, creating stories; visit pub library; interesting classroom materials; place materials within view but out of reach; provide insufficient materials; give children choices, opps to express preferences; create situations in which children must ask for help; create absurd/surprising situations; encourage "make believe" situations
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skills in phonemic awareness
|
knows alphabet; separates sentences into words, words into syllables; rhymes; predicts words from sounds; matches letter name with object, sound with object
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teaching tactics for phonemic awareness
|
nursury rhymes, simple poems and finger plays with rhymes, point out rhymes in classroom conversation, clap/count syllables, rhyme words spoken by student, sort picture cards by initial/medial/final sounds, have students delete sounds in words, read stories with rhyming words
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|
examples of visual organizers for help students see relationships between concepts and words
|
semantic feature analysis, attribute web, venn diagram, multiple-meaning tree, script and story framework
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creating language-sensitive classroom
|
incoroprate varied, stimulating opportunities for langue use in classroom routines and curric
|
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|
how SLPs assist progress from language to literacy
|
collaboration with Ts is critical! encourage Ts to provide instruction on phonics, basic reading skills; provide knowledge of sound-symbol relationships; help sp.ed and gen.ed Ts understand basic units of words, sounds to develop lessons to teach phono awareness; help Ts develop language-rich activities linking oral and print language
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collaborative consultation
|
shared responsibility for problem definition, planning, provision of services and evaluation of outcomes
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|
rate of inclusion of students with S/L impairments
|
89% solely in gen.ed classroom; 7% resource room visits
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|
students with S/L impairments graduation rate
|
65%
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|
language-development strategies for the home
|
label objects, describe object child plays with, encourage repetition of correct counds, ask questions requiring expanded answers, model language, encourage storytelling
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|
examples of alternative and augmentative communication (AAC) devices
|
obturator, artificial larynx, communication board, speech talker, speech synthesizer
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evolution of definition of mental retardation
|
1960s-70s: divided into educable MR or trainable MR; pre 1992: deficit model described individual's limitations; 1992: defines in terms of levels of supports needed to function in community, moved away from IQ; 2002: back to IQ but retains positive outlook of 1992
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|
guaging intellectual functioning of student with mental retardation
|
IQ below 70; intellec. functioning below levels attained by 97% of gen. population; determined by clinical judgement or IQ test
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|
adaptive behavior
|
the collection of conceptual, social and practical skills that have been learned by people in order to function in their everyday lives
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|
adaptive skill areas, examples
|
conceptual: money, self-direction, reading/writing, language; social: interpersonal, gullibility, obeying laws, self-esteem, responsibility; practical: life skills, self-help, safety, occup. skills
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|
levels of intensity of supports for people with mental retardation
|
intermittent, limited, extensive, pervasive
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|
|
identification of students with MR
|
assess intellectual functioning (IQ; Iowa allows CBM) + adaptive skills (standardized test: Assessment of Adaptive Areas); NOT mental age
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|
public reactions to mental retardation
|
stigmatization, fear --> eugenics, institutionalization, termination of pregnancy, name-calling
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eugenics
|
not allowing individuals to procreate, in misguided effort to preserve or improve species
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|
history of mental retardation
|
late 1700s: Itard and Victor; 1848: S.G.Howe expanded blind institution to include MR; 1876: AAMR formed (under diff name); 1917: all but 4 states had institutions; 1954: parents founded the ARC; 1960s: B.Nirje introduces normalization; 1965: B.Blatt exposed institution conditions; 1960s-70s: new research, Mimosa Cottage Project; 1970s: self-advocacy group People First; 1976: B.Perske introduces dignity of risk
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|
dignity of risk
|
premise that people with MR should experience life's challenges and not be overprotected
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|
Mimosa Cottage Project
|
J.Lent, 1976: demonstrated that people with MR could learn complex tasks and skills for daily life, job
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|
prevalence of MR
|
slightly more than 1% of students; most "mild"
|
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|
over/underrepresentation of race/ethnicity in MR
|
over=af.am: 34% of MR but 14.5% of gen.pop; under=hispanic: 9% of MR but 16% gen.pop
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|
five major causes of MR
|
genetics (20%), toxins, low birth weight, child abuse, bias/misidentification; infections=11%, trauma=11%, prematurity=4%
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|
neural tube disorders
|
cause of MR; anencephaly (part of brain missing), spina bifida (incomplete closure of spinal column)
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|
anoxia/asphyxia
|
cause of MR; oxygen deprivation
|
|
|
phenylketoneuria
|
genetic caust of MR; person is unable to metabolize certain amino acids found in milk - buildup can cause brain damage
|
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|
fragile-X syndrome
|
most common genetic cause of MR; mutation on X chromosome
|
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|
down syndrome
|
genetic cause of MR; 3 chromos in 21st pair instead of 2
|
|
|
epicanthic fold
|
characteristic of down syndrome; extra fold at inner corner of eye
|
|
|
coexistent disabilities/probs with down syndrome
|
vast majority with down have multiple disabs: 78% have hearing loss; S/L impairments; higher prevalence of obesity
|
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|
fetal alcohol syndrome
|
cause of MR; result of mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy; nearly half with FAS qualify for sp.ed
|
|
|
hydrocephaly
|
potential cause of MR; build-up of fluids in brain ventricles causing expansion, pressure on brain, eventually brain damage
|
|
|
tactics for improving generalization of skills
|
set functional, relevant learning goals; get student's attention before beginning instruction; keep students actively involved; teach with real materials; vary materials and examples; vary instructors; be sure skill is mastered in at least one setting; vary settings, include environ where skill will be applied; provide opps for practice; phase out adult assistance
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generalization
|
ability to transfer skill from specific learning situation to other applications and settings
|
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|
how to improve adaptive behavior
|
direct instruction + supports; think of goals in terms of interdependence, not total independence (unrealistic for severe, profound)
|
|
|
Best Buddies
|
Anthony Shriver, 1989: program links college students with individuals with MR, to promote natural supports/friendships
|
|
|
benefits of inclusive preschools
|
no worries about statewide/districtwide assessments yet; children with and without disabs play together; children with disabs shows higher rate of social interaction than noninclusive school; typical children have no negative consequences; typical children show greater appreciation and respect for individual differences
|
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|
functional curriculum
|
focuses on life skills
|
|
|
(progressive) time delay
|
research-validated practice; T asks question, waits shorter and shorter lengths of time for student to give answer before T gives it, T tracks prompted and unprompted correct and incorrect responses
|
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|
task analysis
|
breaking down problem or tast into smaller, sequenced parts (chain); can teach as forward chaining or reverse chaining
|
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|
community-based instruction
|
teaching functional skills and adaptive behaviors in the environments in which they should occur naturally; helps with generalization
|
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|
steps to keep students engaged (behav management) through feedback
|
1. make behav. expectations clear; 2. prompt or remind students how they should behave; 3. continually involve them in instruction; 4. tell students how they are doing; 5. ensure students understand consequences of continual disruptions; 6. be prepared to use punitive measures
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|
supported employment
|
students are helped in locating a job, learning skills needed for it, and keeping the job
|
|
|
job developer
|
seeks/discovers or designs work for students with MR
|
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|
job coach
|
works alongside person with MR, helping them learn all parts of the job
|
|
|
self-determination
|
the attitudes and abilities required to act on one's own behalf, to make decisions for oneself and to make choices; based on principles of freedom, authority, support, responsibility
|
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|
proportion of siblings expecting to take active role in assisting person with MR at some point
|
36%
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