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91 Cards in this Set

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  • Back
What is the “goodness-of-fit” model?
development is likely to be optimized when parents’ child- rearing practices are adapted to the child’s temperamental characteristics
What is "difficult temperament"?
temperamental profile where the child is:
-irregular in daily routines
-adapts slowly to new experiences, often responding negatively and intensely
What is the "discrete emotions theory"?
specific emotions are biologically programmed, accompanied by distinct sets of bodily and facial cues, and discriminable from early in life
What is "easy temperament"?
-quickly establishes regular routines
-is generally good natured
-adapts easily to novelty
What is "effortful control"?
a person's ability to
-focus and/or shift attention as called for by the situation
-suppress dominant or inappropriate responses in favor of those more appropriate for the situation
What is "emotional competence"?
abilities to display
-predominantly positive emotions
-correctly identify others’ emotions and respond appropriately to them
-adjust one’s own emotions to appropriate levels of intensity in order to achieve one’s goals
What is the functionalist perspective (on emotions)?
-the major purpose of an emotion is to establish, maintain, or change one’s relationship with the environment to accomplish a goal
-emotions are not viewed as discrete early in life but as entities that emerge with age
What is separation anxiety?
a wary or fretful reaction that infants and toddlers often display when separated from persons to whom they are attached
What is "slow-to-warm-up temperament"?
child is
-inactive and moody
-displays mild passive resistance to new routines and experiences
What is social competence?
the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while maintaining positive relationships with others
What is "social referencing"?
the use of others’ emotional expressions to gain information or infer the meaning of otherwise ambiguous situations
What is the "social smile"? First appearance?
-smile directed at people
-first appears at 6–10 weeks of age
What is temperament?
a person’s characteristic modes of emotional and behavioral responding to environmental events, including such attributes as activity level, irritability, fearful distress, and positive affect
According to developmentalists who study emotions, an emotion consists of:
-a positive or negative feeling.
-physiological responses that accompany a feeling.
-thoughts that accompany a feeling.
Negative reactions to strangers are more intense when:
attachment objects are unavailable to the child.
Thinking that his mother is in the kitchen, 10-month-old Billy becomes upset and cries when he crawls there from the living room and fails to find her. This observation supports the ________ interpretation(s) of separation anxiety.
cognitive-developmental
Ten-month-old Juan falls, skins his knee, and notices his mother grimace and look upset. A second or two later, Juan begins to cry. Juan's crying behavior:
is prompted in part by social referencing
Which emotional milestone might even a 5-year-old not have reached?
Recognizing that people can experience more than one emotional reaction to the same event.
Perhaps the major reason that young children learn to comply with emotional display rules is:
to maintain others' approval
Mom says, "Sammy's a good baby. It is easy to attract his attention. He is mostly happy, rarely irritable, and he eats well, hardly ever spits up, and sleeps through the night." Her description of Sammy focuses on components of his:
temperament
Cross-cultural research reveals that temperamental attributes like shyness or inhibition:
-are valued and hence advantageous in some Asian cultures.
-are neither advantageous or disadvantageous for Swedish males but somewhat disadvantageous for Swedish females.
-are a social disadvantage in the US
What is the Adult Attachment Interview?
clinical interview used with adolescents and adults to tap respondents’ memories of their childhood relationships with parents in order to assess the character of respondents’ attachment representations
What is Amae?
-Japanese
-refers to an infant’s feeling of total dependance on hid mother and presumption of the mother’s love and indulgence
What is the asocial phase (of attachment)?
approximately the first six weeks of life, in which infants respond in an equally favorable way to interesting social and nonsocial stimuli
What is attachment?
a close emotional relationship between two persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity
What is the Attachment Q-set?
-alternative method of assessing attachment security
-based on observations of the child’s attachment-related behaviors at home
-can be used with infants, toddlers, and preschool children
What is the caregiving hypothesis?
Ainsworth’s notion that the type of attachment an infant develops with a particular caregiver depends primarily on the kind of caregiving he has received from that person
What is insightfulness?
caregiver capacity to understand an infant’s motives, emotions, and behaviors and to take them into account when responding to the infant; thought to be an important contributor to sensitive caregiving
What are internal working models?
cognitive representations of self, others, and relationships that infants construct from their interactions with caregivers
What is learned helplessness?
the failure to learn how to respond appropriately in a situation because of previous exposures to uncontrollable events in the same or similar situations
What is the maternal deprivation hypothesis?
the notion that socially deprived infants develop abnormally because they have failed to establish attachments to a primary caregiver
What is the phase of indiscriminate attachments?
period between 6 weeks and 6–7 months of age in which infants prefer social to nonsocial stimulation and are likely to protest whenever any adult puts them down or leaves them alone
What is the phase of multiple attachments?
period when infants are forming attachments to companions other than their primary attachment object
What is the period of specific attachment?
period between 7 and 9 months of age when infants are attached to one close companion (usually the mother)
What is a preadapted characteristic?
an innate attribute that is a product of evolution and serves some function that increases the chances of survival for the individual and the species
What is reactive attachment disorder?
-inability to form secure attachment bonds with other people
-characterizes many victims of early social deprivation and/or abuse
What is resistant attachment?
an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by strong separation protest and a tendency of the child to remain near but resist contact initiated by the caregiver, particularly after a separation
What is a secondary reinforcer?
an initially neutral stimulus that acquires reinforcement value by virtue of its repeated association with other reinforcing stimuli
What is a secure attachment?
an infant/caregiver bond in which the child welcomes contact with a close companion and uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the environment
What is a secure base?
use of a caregiver as a base from which to explore the environment and to which to return for emotional support
What is the social stimulation hypothesis?
the notion that socially deprived infants develop abnormally because they have had little contact with companions who respond contingently to their social overtures
What are synchronized routines?
generally harmonious interactions between two persons in which participants adjust their behavior in response to the partner’s actions and emotions
What is the temperament hypothesis?
Kagan’s view that the Strange Situation measures individual differences in infants’ temperaments rather than the quality of their attachments
What is avoidant attachment?
an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by little separation protest and a tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver
What is disorganized/disoriented attachment?
an insecure infant/caregiver bond characterized by the infant’s dazed appearance on reunion or a tendency to first seek and then abruptly avoid the caregiver
What is emotional bonding?
term used to describe the strong affectional ties that parents may feel toward a neonate; some theorists believe that the strongest bonding occurs shortly after birth, during a sensitive period
What is imprinting?
an innate or instinctual form of learning in which the young of certain species will follow and become attached to moving objects (usually their mothers)
Jared smiles more at people he sees regularly than at strangers. However, he loves to be held and was apt to protest whenever a family guest who has been holding him should lay him down in his crib and walk away. Jared seems to be in the ? phase.
phase of indiscriminate attachments
In Erikson's theorizing, the strength or security of an infant's attachment to a caregiver is primarily a reflection of:
the sense of trust the infant has developed toward the caregiver.
Ethologists argue that attachments build from biologically programmed responses that influence
infant behaviour AND caregiver response
Susan and her mother are participating in the "Strange Situation." When Susan's mother returns to the room, Susan acts resentful but moves closer, staying near until Mom tries to hug her. Susan's attachment classification is most likely:
resistant
Zoe loves her infant and consistently tries to stimulate him in play, particularly when he shows signs of becoming fussy. This treatment might be expected to lead her son to form a(n):
avoidant attachment
What would Kagan's temperament hypothesis find difficult to explain?
-infant can be differently attached to either parent

-if mother receives training, infant with difficult temperament can usually develop secure attachment
Fathers play little if any meaningful role in an infant's or toddler's:
fathers can play a meaningful role in each of these domains.
Infants cared for by a variety of caregivers rather than by a single caregiver figure:
do not suffer from the absence of an exclusive mother figure, as long as the caregiving they receive is sensitive and responsive.
Developmental outcomes for children in low quality day care depend most importantly on:
the sensitivity of caregiving that parents provide at home.
What is the "behavioral comparisons phase"?
the tendency to form impressions of others by comparing and contrasting their overt behaviors
belief-desire theory
-theory of mind that develops between ages 3 and 4

-the child now realizes that both beliefs and desires may determine behavior and that people will often act on their beliefs, even if they are inaccurate
What is the categorical self?
a person’s classification of the self along socially significant dimensions such as age and sex
What is the "desire theory"?
an early theory of mind in which a person’s actions are thought to be a reflection of her desires rather than other mental states such as beliefs
What is the "extended self"?
more mature self-representation, emerging between ages 3½ and 5 years, in which children are able to integrate past, present, and unknown future self-representations into a notion of a self that endures over time
What is the false belief task?
method of assessing one’s understanding that people can hold inaccurate beliefs that can influence their conduct
What is foreclosure?
identity status characterizing individuals who have prematurely committed themselves to occupations or ideologies without really thinking about these commitments
What is "identity"?
a mature self-definition; a sense of who one is, where one is going in life, and how one fits into society
What is identity achievement?
identity status characterizing individuals who have carefully considered identity issues and have made firm commitments to an occupation and ideologies
What is an identity crisis?
Erikson’s term for the uncertainty and discomfort that adolescents experience when they become confused about their present and future roles in life
What is identity diffusion?
identity status characterizing individuals who are not questioning who they are and have not yet committed themselves to an identity
What is "intimacy vs isolation"?
the sixth of Erikson’s psychosocial conflicts
-young adults must commit themselves to a shared identity with another person or else remain aloof and unconnected to others
What is "joint attention"?
the act of attending to the same object at the same time as someone else; a way in which infants share experiences and intentions with their caregivers
What is the "looking glass self"?
the idea that a child’s self-concept is largely determined by the ways other people respond to him or her
What does "moratorium" mean?
identity status characterizing individuals who are currently experiencing an identity crisis and are actively exploring occupational and ideological positions in which to invest themselves
What is "personal agency"?
the recognition that one can be the cause of an event or events
What is negative identity?
Erikson’s term for an identity that is in direct opposition to that which parents and most adults would advocate
What is the present self?
early self-representation in which 2- and 3-year-olds recognize current representations of self but are largely unaware that past self-representations or self-relevant events have implications for the future
What is proprioceptive feedback?
sensory information from the muscles, tendons, and joints that helps one to locate the position of one’s body (or body parts) in space
What is the "psychological comparisons phase"?
tendency to form impressions of others by comparing and contrasting these individuals on abstract psychological dimensions
What is the "psychological constructs phase"?
tendency to base one’s impressions of others on the stable traits these individuals are presumed to have
What is "relational self-worth"?
feelings of self-worth within a particular relationship context (for example, with parents, with male classmates); may differ across relationship contexts
What is "role taking"?
the ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand his or her intentions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
What is self-concept?
One’s perceptions of one’s unique combination of attributes
What is self-esteem?
One’s evaluation of one’s worth as a person based on an assessment of the qualities that make up the self-concept
What is "social cognition"?
the thinking that people display about the thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors of themselves and other people
What is the theory of mind?
an understanding that people are cognitive beings with mental states that are not always accessible to others and that often guide their behavior
The finding that minority preschoolers often display a pro-White bias and associate more positive characteristics with Whites than with their own ethnic group most likely implies that:
minority children have learned some of the negative social stereotypes about minority groups.
________ provides strong evidence a child's distinction between public and private self.
Successfully misleading an opponent when providing clues in a hidden object game
Harter and others find that when 8-year-olds rate their social, cognitive, and physical competencies and their general self-worth, they tend to:
rate themselves quite similarly to how others (teachers, peers) perceive them.
Rambo has graduated from high school and joined the Army to give him some time to decide whether to go to college and what career to pursue. These decisions have been weighing upon him heavily for the past few months. Rambo is in the ________ identity status.
moratorium
Close relationships with domineering parents have been found to promote identity ________ , whereas distant relationships with aloof parents seem to promote identity ________.
foreclosure; diffusion
Among the factors that would help minority youth to forge positive ethnic identities are:
parental fostering of ethnic pride and parents' preparing their children for prejudices and value conflicts youth may encounter.

NOT playing down
Children observe a film in which Billy acts mean to three peers. They rate how "bad" Billy's behavior is, indicate the extent to which Billy is "mean", and then make predictions about how Billy is likely to behave toward peers next week. If their behavioral predictions reflect true trait-like inferences, then the best predictor of their inferences about Billy's future behavior will be ________, a type of reasoning they begin to display by ________.
ratings of how mean they perceived Billy to be; age 9 to 10
Recent research suggests that ________ may be particularly important at fostering the development of role-taking skills and interpersonal understanding.
disagreements among close friends