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52 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is modeling?
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Changes in attitudes, emotions, and behaviors as a result of observing others
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What are models?
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Individuals whose verbal AND nonverbal behaviors act as cues for observer's subsequent behavior
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What are the types of effects of modeling?
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-Learning new skills and behaviors
- Modifying psychological responses - Facilitating learned responses |
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What are the psychological responses that can be a result of modeling?
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-Self confidence
-Motivation -Anxiety |
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What are the steps in the modeling process?
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Demonstration-->
Cognitive Process (retention) <--> Physical skills <--> Psychological responses<--> |
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What are the four essential processes of modeling?
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Attention + Retention + Production + Motivation = Successful Modeling
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What are several key points to giving effective demonstrations (from Weiss et al 1993)?
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-Ensure selective attention to key features of the demonstration
-Maximize observer ability to remember modeled actions -Optimize matching of responses to the models actions -Ensure that the observer WANTS to emulate the skill |
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What methods did McCullagh and Weiss usein their 2002 study of psychological effects of modeling?
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Several anecdotal stories including an elite archer, 10 year old with a fear of swimming, and a college bball player with an ACL injury that was thinking of quitting
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What are the model types that can be used to influence psychological responses?
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Peer models
Mastery vs Coping Models Multiple, diverse models Self-modeling |
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What are the benefits of peer models?
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-The similarity of the model enhances attention, self-efficacy, and motivation
-Learners may be able to better identify with peers than others -Peers convey info and motivation regarding learning strategies and self-regulation skills |
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What is the difference between a mastery and a coping model?
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Mastery= errorless performance, high ability statements, positive attitude, low task difficulty
Coping= partially correct-->improved performance, low-->higher ability statements, improving attitude, high-->easier task difficulty |
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What are the benefits of having multiple, diverse models?
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diverse in gender, age, race, ability
increases likelihood that observers can identify with at least one of the models |
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What were the methods of "Effects of Modeling on Psychological Rehabilitation of Injured Athletes" (Flint 1991)?
What were the model types used? |
20 female bball players w/ ACL surgery
Assigned to model or no-model (control) groups Viewed a film three different times within 4 months after surgery Model Types: similar, multiple, diverse, coping |
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What were the results of "Effects of Modeling on Psychological Rehabilitation of Injured Athletes" (Flint 1991)?
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The observes identified w/ emotions and experiences of models...
saw themselves as similar... reached physical landmarks more quickly |
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What were the methods of "Influence of Peer Models on Children's swimming skills and psychological responses" by Weiss, McCullagh, Smith 1998?
Conclusions? |
5-7 year olds, scared of learning to swim
Assigned to modeling (peer mastery or peer coping) and control groups Conclusions: Peer models were better than controls. Coping was greater than mastery on self-efficacy. Coping= Mastery on skills and fear *Peer model+swim lessons > swim lessons alone for fearful children |
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Whats the difference between videotape feedback and self-modeling?
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Videotape feedback- unedited viewing of previously attempted skills
Self-modeling- shows only desired behaviors |
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What is the take home message from the modeling lecture?
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“Modeling…is one of the most
powerful means of transmitting values, attitudes, and patterns of thought and behaviors” (Bandura, 1986) |
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What are some approaches to studying coaches influence?
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-Observations of and interviews with successful
- CET studies (smith and smoll) - Studies based on motivation (SDT) and leadership (MML) theories -Expectation effects (self fulfilling prophecies, Horn et al 2010) |
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What factors are involved in the CET approach from Horn's working model?
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Coaches behavior
Athlete's perceptions of coaches behavior Athlete's self perceptions and beliefs Athletes level/type of motivation |
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Describe CET Study #1
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development of the Coaching Behavior Assessment System (CBAS)
-reactive and spontaneous behaviors |
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Describe CET Study #2
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Coaches behaviors and players favorable evaluation
-more positive reinforcement for desirable behaviors -more encouragement and instruction following skill errors -less punishment following errors |
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What are some guidelines for a positive coaching approach?
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DO encourage immediately after a mistake
DO provide instruction for skill improvement DONT make negative remarks after mistakes DONT withhold praise for a good performance |
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Describe CET study #3
Results? |
A field experiment- do CET coaches make a difference?
Training Methods -direct instruction of positive approach guideline -modeling of desired behaviors -self monitoring of game behaviors (praise, instruction) Results: children reported greater enjoyment, higher self-esteem, more likely to remain in sport |
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Describe CET Study #4
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Assessed perceptions of coaches behavior, attitudes towards coaches and their sport experience, levels of self-esteem
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Describe the results of CET study #4
Athletes for trained coaches reported: Win/Loss records? |
Athletes for trained coaches reported:
• greater liking for their coach • coach was a better teacher • more fun playing baseball • greater liking for teammates Win/Loss records were the same! |
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Describe CET study #5 (Barnett et al 1992): participation/attrition
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Dropout percentages were much lower for CET trained coaches than for control
The CET coaches' atheletes who did drop out had fewer negative reasons for it |
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Explain coaches expectation effects as presented by Horn, Lox, and Laborador
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-Coaches form expectations that predict an athletes performance over the season
-their expectations influence how they act toward the athlete -their different behaviors affect the athletes learning, perforamnce, and psychological growth -the athelets behavior and performance conform to the coaches expectations |
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How do coaches form expectations for players (Step 1 of the self-fulfilling prophecy theory)?
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-Person cues (race, body type, gender)
-performance information (stats, preseason behaviors) -psychological characteristics (coachability, maturity, confidence) |
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How do coaches expectations affect the athletes behaviors (Step 2 of the self-fulfilling prophecy theory)?
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-Frequency and quality of coach-athlete interactions (warmth, affect, time spent)
-quantity and quality of instruction (standards of performance, amount of material, activities) -type and frequency of feedback (use of praise and criticism, amt of technical instruction, attributions for successful and unsuccessful performance) |
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How do coaches BEHAVIORS affect athletes RESPONSES (Step 3 the self-fulfilling prophecy theory)?
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-degree of skill improvement
-psychological growth (perceived competence, intrinsic motivation, self esteem, competitive anxiety) |
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Who are the susceptibile or at-risk individuals for the self-fulfilling prophecy theory?
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Late maturing boys, early maturing girls, minorities
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What is the fourth and final step in the self fulfilling prophecy theory?
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The athletes behaviors conform to coaches expectations, reinforcing the coaches belief that he/she is a good predictor of behavior
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What are some sport application of the self-fulfilling prophecy theory?
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-Youth sport programs where coaches are a source of competence information and teach the fundamental skills
-Maturational rates: late maturing boys and early maturing girls have developmental vulnerability -Sport stereotypes on gender and ethnicity |
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What is the zero-sum game definition of competition?
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Win (+) + Loss (-) = 0
Doesnt take into account performance or personal improvement |
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What is the social evaluation definition of competition?
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comparison of one's ability or performance is made to a standard, which can be observed, evaluated, or judged by significant tohers
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What are the steps in the Competitive Stress Process (R.Smith1986)?
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Circle of:
Situation (potential for social evaluation?) Appraisal (perception of the situational demands?) Emotional Response (to person or situation? arousal and/or anxiety) Outcomes (participation behavior, psychosocial, health) |
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What are the situational determinants of competitive stress?
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-Type of sport
-Amt of time prior to competition -Situation criticality -Tasks or position roles -Game or event outcome |
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What are some individual differences related to competitive stress?
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-Competitive Trait Anxiety (CTA), which is developed through parent-child interactions
-Sources of worry:fear of failure or negative social evaluation -Self esteem (low=high stress) -Performance expectancies -Achievement orientations (mastery or task, ego or performance) |
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What was the difference between the 1992 and 1993 CET study?
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92 focused on Athletes PERFORAMNCE and BEHAVIOR
93 focused on athletes PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS |
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What did the SImon and Mertens 1979 study attempt to determine? Results?
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If there is too much stress in youth competitive sport
They found that activites liek test and band can be just as stressful |
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What are the emotional responses to competition and how are they measured (Passer 1988)?
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Physiological (arousal: HR, BP, skin temp)
Psychological (anxiety inventories) Behavioral (self-talk, chane in perforamnce or behaviors, eating, or sleeping) |
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What are some outcomes of competitive anxiety?
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Health- sleeping, eating, depression, injury, illness
Participation/performance- continue, drop out, mechanics Psychosocial- self-perceptions, enjoyment, motivation, burnout |
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From the Video "Piano Recital":
Situational Determinants of Stress? Appraisal Determinants of Stress? Emotional Response? Outcomes or Consequences? |
Situational: finds out he will be playing same piece as Ronald
Appraisal: "Im not like Ronald", competitiveness, "why is she doing this to me??" Emotional: state anxiety, performance anxiety Outcomes: dropped out of competition Note: it was not the SITUATION that made him drop out it was his INTERPRETATION |
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What is the Historical Perspectives of Sport?
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Develops character values (honesty, respect for others)
Training generalizes to life skills (learn to compete and cooperate, self-control, coping with stress) |
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What are some ways to reduce stress in athletes?
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-Know your athletes
-Define success as achieving goals, not just social comparison -provide a supportive (positive approach) environment -provide for fun and affiliation needs -reinforce important behaviors -help athletes help themselves (stress management) |
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What are some key themes of moral development in sport?
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-Sportsmanship is not automatic (theory)
- Overemphasis on winning creates an egocentric viewpoint (research) -Reducing unsportsmanlike behaviors requires deliberate interventions (practice) |
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What are the theoretical definitions of sportsmanship?
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Social learning theory (prosocial behaviors are consistent with social norms-honest, respect, helping)
Stuctural-developmental theories: concern for physical and emotional welfare of self and others leads to behaviors that align with one's moral reasoning level |
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What are the social learning theory mechanisms of change?
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Modeling or observational learning
Reinforcement or punishment Approval and disapproval by significant adults and peers |
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What are the levels of moral reasoning?
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Self-interest (egocentric)- "whats in it for me?"
Altruistic (other-oriented)- "golden rule" Mutual interest and welfare- recognizes all individuals' interests, rights, and needs |
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What are the Structural-Developmental Theory mechanisms of change (moral dev)?
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Dilemma, Dialogue, Balance!
Experience moral dilema Discuss dilemma Resolve conflict through moral balance |
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What is Rest's Model of Moral Action?
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Answers the Question: What must happen psychologically in order for moral behavior to take place?
INTERPRETING the situation (moral sensitivity) JUDGING what action is right INTENTION to act (moral motivation) BEHAVIOR or plan of action (moral character) |
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What is the key to moral development?
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Appropriate behaviors and REASONING behind the actions
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