Sociology Unit 1 - Studying Society

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Sociology

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The study of human social life, groups and societies.

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Society

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A group of people who share a culture.

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Social structures

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The groups and institutions that make up society such as families, the education system and the social stratification system.

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Social processes

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These are processes such as socialisation, social control and social change.

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Social issues

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These are issues and problems that affect individuals, groups and communities in their daily lives such as fear of crime, inequality and poverty.

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Culture

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The way of life of a society or group including its values, norms, beliefs and language.

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Socialisation

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The process through which we learn the culture and values of the society we are born into.

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Social stratification

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The way society is structured/divided into hierarchical strata with the most privileged at the top and the least privileged at the bottom.

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Population

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The particular group being studied.

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Sample

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A subgroup of the population that is selected for the study.

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Sampling frame

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A list of members of the population.

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Representative sample

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A sample that has the same characteristics as the population but is a smaller version of it.

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Generalisations

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General statements and conclusions that apply not only to the sample studied but also to the broader population.

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Peer review

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Before papers are accepted for presentation at conferences or before articles are published in journals, they are assessed and reviewed by experienced sociologists. This operates as a form of quality control.

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Simple random sampling

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Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

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Systematic sampling

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Researchers take every 'nth' item from the sampling frame, for example every 20th name from a school register.

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Stratified random sampling

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Researchers divide the population into strata according to characteristics such as age, gender and ethnicity. They then randomly draw a sample from each strata in proportion to the numbers in the population.

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Snowball sampling

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Through contact with one member of a population, the researcher is introduced to, or identifies others in the same population.

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Cross sectional studies

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A cross sectional survey / study takes a cross section of the population and questions them on relevant issues only once.

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Two advantages of cross sectional surveys.

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1) It is not as time consuming as longitudinal surveys.

2) It can be a cheap way of gathering a lot of information.

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One disadvantage of cross-sectional surveys

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This only gives us a snapshot view. It only tells us about people at one particular point in time.

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Longitudinal studies

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Studies of the same group of people conducted over a period of time. This means there will be follow-up surveys or interviews carried out at intervals over a number of years.

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One advantage of longitudinal studies.

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Allows us to examine social change over time.

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One disadvantage of longitudinal studies.

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It can be time consuming and expensive.

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Social surveys.

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They are used to collect information from large numbers of people. They can be based on questionnaires or structured interviews. The questions are standardized so all respondents answer identical questions in the same order. Survey questions can be 'open' or 'closed'.

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Self-completion postal questionnaires

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These are questionnaires sent to respondents via post / email. They complete a copy of the questionnaire and return it to the researcher.

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Four advantages of postal questionnaires.

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1) Postal questionnaires are one of the cheapest and quickest ways of getting information from lots of people.

2) The researcher is not present and therefore, respondents may be more willing to answer personal or sensitive questions.

3) The questions are standardised so sociologists can compare respondents' answers.

4) Postal questionnaires can be replicated to check reliability or findings (consistency = reliability)

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Four disadvantages of postal questionnaires?

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1) The questions cannot be explained face-to-face so some maybe misunderstood or skipped.

2) The questionnaire may not have been completed by the person it was sent to.

3) Postal questionnaires are not appropriate for some populations (example: homeless)

4) The response rate is usually low. Those who respond may not be representative or typical of the population being studied. If so, researchers cannot generalise from the sample to the population.

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Hand-delivered questionnaires

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Researcher hands the self-completion questionnaire to the respondent and returns to collect the completed questionnaire.

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Structured interviews

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Trained interviewer asks set questions and records respondents' answers. It is conducted either face to face or via telephone.

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Five advantages of structured interviews.

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1) The trained interviewer can explain questions if respondent requires clarification.

2) The questions are standardised so sociologists can compare respondents' answers.

3) Sociologists can identify connections between different factors.

4) Structured interviews can be replicated to check reliability of findings (consistency = reliability).

5) Sociologists can generalise from reliable results taken from a representative sample

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Four disadvantages of structured interviews

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1) The use of preset questions assumes that the sociologist has skills to decide what questions need to be asked, how and in what order before the interview even takes place.

2) Interviewees (respondents) have few opportunities to raise new issues.

3) Interview effect: in a formal interview setting, the interviewee may only give answers that are socially acceptable to show them in the most positive light. The results may not be valid.

4) Interviewer effect: the interviewer's personal or social characteristics may influence the interviewee's responses making the results invalid

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Validity

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This is truth or authenticity. Research findings are valid if they provide a true or authentic picture of what is being studied

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Replication

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Standardised methods such as questionnaires can be replicated by other researchers to check reliability of research findings. Consistency confirms reliability.

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Unstructured interviews

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An unstructured interview is a guided conversation where the interviewer is guided by a short list of prompts that they have prepared in advance. Group interviews are usually unstructured and are like little group discussions.

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Five advantages of unstructured interviews

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1) The trained interviewer can rephrase questions and clear up any misunderstandings.

2) The interviewer is not constrained to preset questions and so can ask follow-up questions to explore complex issues.

3) Interviewees can develop answers and explains views in detail.

4) Researchers can give an in-depth and rich account of the topic being studied.

5) Researchers can provide a more valid or authentic picture of the topic.

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Six disadvantages of unstructured interviews

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1) They are more time consuming and expensive for the amount of data that is collected.

2) The interviewer must have necessary skills needed to keep conversations going and encourage interviewees to 'open up'.

3) Interviewer effect: The interviewer's personal or social characteristics may influence the interviewees' responses making the results invalid.

4) Interview effect: in a formal interview setting, interviewees may only give answers that are socially acceptable to show them in the most positive light. So the results may not be valid.

5) The questions are not standardised so it is difficult to replicate in order to check reliability.

6) The sample size is smaller so it is difficult to generalise from sample to wider population.

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Three advantages of group interviews

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1) Through group interviews, the researcher can gather a wide range of views and experiences and build up a lot of rich information about the subject.

2) Participants in group interviews can be recruited to take place in individual interviews at a later point in the research.

3) Some interviewees may feel more comfortable when discussing the experiences in a group setting because they are supported by others in the group.

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Three disadvantages of group interviews

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1) Group interviews require a skilled interviewer who can keep the discussion going and encourage interviewees to 'open up' whilst remaining aware that the topic may be sensitive to some people.

2) Some interviewees may dominate the discussion so that not every voice is heard.

3) In a group setting, the researcher cannot guarantee confidentiality or anonymity to interviewees.

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Non-participant observation

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In a non participant observation the sociologist simply observes the activities, but does not take part in them.

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Two advantages of non-participant observation

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1) By reducing the level of interaction between the researcher and the participants you can reduce the risk of the Observer effect. However, this only happens if the observation is covert.

2) It is also easier to record information and observations if you are not participating, so you can record data more easily.

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Two disadvantages of non-participant observation

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1) If the observation is overt you are more at risk from the Observer effect as people know that they are being watched.

2) You do not gain as much information as participant observations as you are not so submerged in the group you are observing.

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Participant observation

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The researcher studies a group by becoming a full member of the group and participating in its daily life.

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Argument for and against participant observation

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For: Some supporters of covert participant observation argue that it may be the only way to study illegal activities and that it is acceptable so long as participants are not harmed as a result of taking part in the research.

Against: critics argue that covert participant observation is unethical or morally unacceptable. This is because participants are not informed that they are being studied so do not get the chance to give, withhold or withdraw their consent.

Against: critics argue that covert participant observation is unethical or morally unacceptable. This is because participants are not informed that they are being studied so do not get the chance to give, withhold or withdraw their consent.