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109 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How do we know what we know
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direct observation: inquiry and experience
agreement (agreed upon knowledge): tradition and authority |
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scientific inquiry is:
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conscious, deliberate, rigorous, and systematic approach to understanding
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difference between casual inquiry and scientific inquiry
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1. more casual inquiry, more likely observations are inaccurate 2. more likely to make errors in our conclusions
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sources of error in casual or ordinary observation
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1 inacurrate observation-mistakes in what we observe
2 overgeneralization- assume our observations are for larger groups 3 selective observation- see what we want to see |
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foundations of sociology
sociology is... science is... |
conscious, deliberate, and rigorous examination of the SOCIAL WORLD
same but of WORLD |
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what is sociology
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as a science is deliberate, systematic examination of..
1 social contexts in which people live 2 how these contexts influence peoples lives-behavior 3 how groups influence people 4 how people are influenced by their society |
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sociology attempts to identify...
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patterns of regularity in social life that are explained by theories (trends)
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patterns
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group membership that affects our behavior
ex who you marry, health, what we wear |
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theory
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logical explanation for a particular pattern
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key elements of inquiry in sociology
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in sociology are not people but variables that characterize people
gender affects income age affects divorce race affects grades |
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foundations of sociolgy
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deals with aggregated not individual behavior; the collective actions and situation of many individuals; why aggregated behavior patterns are regular over time even if individuals change
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social "facts" face criticism...
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1. trivial-confirms what everyone knows
2. wrong-everyone knowns "that" isnt true -all of us known exceptions of what sociologists observe |
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foundations of sociology
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things are not always as they seem
scientific facts often contradict personal experience and conventional wisdom (cant always depend on agreement) |
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overview of social stratification
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sociology says that individuals are shaped by social forces-some if not most of wht happens to individuals is a funciton of social factors
wpp determined by group membership |
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scientific facts often contradict personal experience and agreement basd on tradition
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sociology suggest that social factors influence peoples position in life
traditional views suggest that people are primarily responsible for their own lot in life |
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social factors that affect wpp
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race, gender, class, culture
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individual factors
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aspects such as hard work and determination determine lot in life-traditional view
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Compare social vs individual factors in america
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in america, the idea that social factors play even a small role is dismissed-believe in individual factors
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American ideals-individual factors
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core values of individualism and freedom
most dominant, productive, and affluent country in the world yet there is more inequality than any other industrialized countrycaused by indiv ideals |
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Conditions and processes of social stratification
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social differentiation, social inequality, social stratification
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social differentiation
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-people have distinct indiv qualities and social roles
-people are different -differences does not necessarily mean these differences are ranked (valued over others-different doesnt mean better) ex. infant vs adolescent, brown vs black hair |
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social inequality
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one social difference becomes better than others-when ranked, get social inequ.
-condition in which people have unqual access to valued resources in a society -typically emerges from social differentiation |
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social inequality arises for two different reasons
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1. evaluation of sociological differences-nothing biologically superior just culturally or socially
2. Some social differences, especially different social roles, place some people in a position to acquire a greater share of valued resources (men vs women-breadwinner vs caretaker) |
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social stratification
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institutionalized inequality
-system of social relationships that determines who gets what and why-system emerges in shools and chruch etc to determine who gets what and why |
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2 primary bases of the stratification system
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ascription and achievement
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ascription
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-placement in the hierarchical system is based primarily on heredity or other qualities and attributes completely beyond the control of individuals
-gender, race, origin, ethnicity |
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achievement
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-done on own
-placement in hierarchical system is based primarily on merit, meeting specific ideals, and following rules of achievement -qualities and attributes within control of individuals |
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social class
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where an individual falls on the ladder of stratification
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social class def
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grouping of individuals with similar positions and similar interests-either political or economic
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3 criteria to determine class
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1. occupation-income producing activity (wealth)
2. authority-ability to order, direct others (power) 3. property (ownership)-prestige |
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social mobility
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ability to move acorss the classes and within a class
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social classes of us
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upper class, corporate class, middle class, working class, lower class
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Degrees of inequality
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income and wealth
basic necessities and health political inequalities |
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income
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the money you make
-wages and payment received from an occupation or investments -money |
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wealth
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-accumulated assets in the form of valued goods (real estate, stocks, money reserves)
-something of economic value that is bought, sold, or invested |
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distinction between income and wealth
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income is earned and spent on necessities or desires
-wealth is accumulated and used to generate income |
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importance of wealth and income
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they generate other differences and attitudes that cause inequality to exist
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differences in inequality of income and wealth
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differences in income are easy to see so we focus on them but there is even greater inequality in wealth
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income inequality
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-the extent to which income is not distributed equally-rich/poor gap
-the extent to which some groups have more or less income -if everyone has roughly the same income, then no inequality would exist |
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Gini index
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masure of income and wealth inequality that is used to summarize and compare
-provides single number for the illustration of amount of inequality that exists in a community or country that can be compared to other countries |
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Gini index measures:
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the degree of inequality in the distribution of income-how much income for amt of population
calculated from the Lorenz curve |
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Lorenz curve
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cumulative family or household income is plotted against the number of families or households
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perfect inequality
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20% of families had 20% of income etc-diagonal line
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inequality
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represented by the curve-lots people own little and the top owns the rest
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perfect equality
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1% owns 0, 20 own 0, 1 person owns 100% of income
-never perfect either way although this can almost be illustrated by dictator in small country |
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Gini index
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area between the countrys lorenz curve and the 45 equality line
-higher the number, the greater the inequality, closer to 0, less inequality |
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1968 Gini
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least inequality because of civil rights legislations-equal access, welfare, new deal programs
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US Gini index
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highest in the world-indicates that income is distributed highly unequally
-twice that of austria and 40% more than Germany |
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basic necessities for living
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food, water, clothing, shelter, healthcare
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why is income important
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because income affects other factors (such as attitude) that influence our lives
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are inequalities in basic necessities always a direct function of inequalities in income and wealth
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no...inequalities in income and wealth are not pefect predictors of inequalities in basic necessities because of government subsidies and relative cost of basic necessities
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government subsidies
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if the government provided for those who cannot afford it then
-low income would not necessarily mean a low standard of living-lack of basic necessities -there would be relatively little inequality in basic necessities |
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relative cost of basic necessities
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even with highly unequal distribution of income:
-if the cost of basic necessities is relatively low, inequality would exist -wealth and savings and luxuries would be unequally distributed |
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although there are government subsidies and relative costs of necessities are low...
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over 2 million live without potable water
over 3 million live without indoor plumbing 36.3 million in the US do not have enough food to maintain a healthy lifestyle 13 million children do not get enough food on a daily basis 1 in 10 households are living in hunger 4 million children experience food insufficiency and hunger-10% of children under 12 in the country-largest group in poverty |
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why do problems like hunger exist
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because the US spends less on subsidies for low income people than any other industrial nation and has more poverty
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health and healthcare-measured by...
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life expectancy
health outcomes quality of life access to healthcare |
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determinants of health
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physical environment
behavior and biology-enviro social factors-inequality health services-access |
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health services available to people
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health care institutions-clinics and hospitals
health manpower-physicians and nurses health commodities-equipment and supplies |
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Problems with healthcare
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-healthcare is limited in the number of doctors, hospitals etc
-demand exceeds supply therefore it must be rationed -healthcare must be distributed by some means |
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2 principles to distribute healthcare
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1. need
2. price-in the US, most common form United states is the only industralized nation without universal health care-one that is bot based on price but on need |
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US healthcare
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treated like a commodity that can be bought and sold
-unlike other goods and services it is a NECESSITY and is VERY EXPENSIVE-prohibitively |
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3 factors that influence who gets healthcare
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ability to pay
access to healthcare health insurance |
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other determinants of health that are distributed unequally
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exposure to risk factors
nutrition behaviors stress |
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health services as a determinant of healthcare
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more or better access is available for certain groups with illustrates the inequality that exists
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indicators for checking to see if the healthcare system works
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infant mortality rate
life expectancy length of active lifestyle |
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US healthcare system
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Highest health expenditure
lowest life expectancy by gender health performance ranked 37 even if economy is number 1 |
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US health composite score
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72 among nations
highest cost per capita 54 in financial contribution fairness |
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Problems of citizens of US
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lowest number follow their doctors advise
lowest survival rate of kidney transplant second lowest survival of colorectal cancer |
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Relationship of healthcare cost and quality
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-great disparity between cost and product
-costs increasing and need increasing because of the lack of insurance |
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political inequalities
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differences in what some groups put into the political process
differences in what some groups get out of the political process |
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state as redistributive institution
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function is to take from some and redistribute to others-materials in society
inputs-taxes |
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socialist idea of redistribution
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takes materials from all and redistributes them evenly-identical outputs
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american idea of redistribution
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varying inputs and varying outputs-amt for each is varying
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taxes as input
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way to generate revenue because every nation has to raise money for input through taxes
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taxes
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the mechanism by which the state generate revenue to sustain itself and its expenses
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progressive taxation
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-common in most nations
-those most able to afford it, pay the most taxes -those who make more money, pay more taes |
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outputs of political inequalities
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welfare, education, military, roads,
-all are distributed unequally among groups |
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misconception concerning government assistance
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poor do not receive the majority of the government benefits (outputs)
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who gets government assistance?
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1. education
2. enviro groups, parks and rec, police, public health programs etc 3. medicaid 4. higher education 5. dept of corrections 6. public assitance (2%) 7. transportation |
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overall state spending (gov output) for the poor
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less than 18%
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stratification
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institutionalized inequality
-condition in which people have unequal access to valued resources in a society -system of social relationships that determines who gets what and why |
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5 types of stratification systems
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1. primitive communal
2. slavery 3. caste 4. feudal (or estate) 5. class |
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5 major characteristics to differentiate the types of stratification systems
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1. normative closure/openess between ranks
2. actual method of placement into ranks 3. method of legitimation 4. predominant form of inequality 5. level of inequality (comparative)1 |
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normative closure/openess between ranks
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norms or values prescribe how open or closed the ranks should be-what is right and wrong
-US believes that you should be open to move up in class |
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degree of openess in the US
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-its open
-we nominatively believe people are free and that their own efforts and accomplishments allow them to move up in a class |
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Actual method of placement into ranks-way people end up in one rank versus another
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ascription or achievement
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Placement in US vs India
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In US, much is based on ahievement while in India it is much more on ascription
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Method of legitimation
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method used to justify the existance of inequality in a society
-more ineq in a society the more important is the method of legitimation and the more elaborate and comprehensive -justification for why one is where they are in social stratification-why those at bottom dont revolt |
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3 primary methods of legitimation
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1. custom or tradition
2. idealogical (belief system) 3. legal justification |
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custom or tradition
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-how things have always been done
-diverts focus away from alternative methods for distributing valued resources |
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idealogical
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systematic belief system
-superior qualification and contributions to society of those at the top -religious belief that a deity wills or deems the system of inequality-primised reward in the afterlife for those who obey the earthly rules and position-common |
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Legal Justification
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-laws that enfore the rights and privileges of those in upper ranks-apartheid or jim crow
-laws and procedures that claim to ensure a fair set of rules in assigning ranks and rewards |
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3 dominant forms if inequality
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1. economic wealth
2. power (military, political, bureaucratic) 3. status or prestige |
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types of stratification systems
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forms of inequality are typically iner related
-one is typically most predominant and leads to the others |
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Primitive communal societies and stratification-hunter or gatherer
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earliest form of social organization
nomadic-semi nomadic NO-open, AP-achievement-because strongest or smartest, FL-tradition, PF-status, RI-low |
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Slave-stratification system
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historically persitant form of inequality
emerged only after humans established agricultural communities peaked in early agrarian civilizations-started when groups lost wars NO-closed, AP-ascription, FL-legal, ideology PF-economic, RI-high |
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Caste stratification system
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-rigid system which divides members of a society into different castes
-castes are separated socially, economically and physicially -intermarriage is limited and occupations assigned to castes-found mostly in india NO-closed, AP-ascription RI-relgious and ideological PF-status, RI-high |
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Feudal or estate
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-land owning nobility, first estate-priests, second estate-nobility, third estate-commoners
-highest level of relative inequality between 1 and 3 estate NO-closed, AP-ascription, FL-legal and ideological, PF-inequality, RI-high |
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Class system of stratification
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-emerged from industrial age
-opposed to the feudal system it replaced -stratified system used in the industrialized world NO-open, AP-mixed, FL-ideological mixed with opportunity, PF-economic, bureaucratic, authority RI-medium |
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History of stratification
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-for most of human history, little inequality has existed
-over past 10000 years increased-the history of civilization is the history of stratification therefore as civilization increases so did inequality |
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period of highest level of inequality
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development of industrial societies
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first signs of large scale hierarchical civilization
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ancient egyptian empire 4000 BC
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Why did relative equality exist for most of human history
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simple societies
no surplus to accumulate no real basis for inequality |
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what changed in history to cause inequality to develop
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neolithic revolution-new stone age
-period in dev of human technology that marks end of stone age -does not refer to a specific chronological period but behavioral and cultural characteristics -tools, crops, domestic animals |
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surplus
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dev of food production methods that allowed one person to produce more food than he or she needed to survive
-can be accumulated-people are freed from survival activities |
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industrial revolution history
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-major technological, socioeconomic, and cultural change in 18th century
-resulted from replacement of economy based on manual labor to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing -began in england with introduction of steam power and powered machinery |
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industrial revolution reducing inequalities
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-complexity of elites to concede power to those with tech skills
-massive increases in material wealth reach marginal utility, elites gain more by allowing masses access to surplus-million to billionaire is little wealth -IR was also a political rev in may parts, ousting the feudal system and replacing with egalitarian society -international confluct necessitated allegiance from the masses to fight |
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post industrial society
information age |
-economy based not on heavy industral prod but services and highly technical industries
-knownledge and education have become important, similar to ownership of property |
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recent trends in stratification
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-inequality is increasing since 1980. With exception of last 300 years the history of humanity is increasing inequality
-which real trend-last 300 or last 10,000 and most recent 25 |
