Sociology Test 2

Front 1

aggregate

Back 1

individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but do not see themselves as belonging together.

Front 2

agricultural revolution

Back 2

the second social revolution, based on the invention of the plow, which led to agricultural societies.

Front 3

agricultural society

Back 3

a society based on large-scale agricultural.

Front 4

authoritarian leader

Back 4

an individual who leads by giving orders

Front 5

biotech society

Back 5

a society whose economy increasingly centers on the application of genetics to produce medicine, food, and materials.

Front 6

category

Back 6

people who have similar characteristics

Front 7

clique

Back 7

a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another

Front 8

coalition

Back 8

the alignment of some members of a group against others

Front 9

democratic leader

Back 9

an individual who leads by trying to reach a consensus

Front 10

domestication revolution

Back 10

the first social revolution, based on the domestication of plants and animals, which led to pastoral and horticultural societies

Front 11

dyad

Back 11

the smallest possible group, consisting of two persons

Front 12

electronic community

Back 12

individuals who regularly interact with one another on the Internet and who think of themselves as belonging together.

Front 13

expressive leader

Back 13

an individual who increases harmony and minimizes conflict in a group; also known as a socioemotional leader

Front 14

group

Back 14

people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant; also called a social group.

Front 15

group dynamics

Back 15

the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups affect individuals

Front 16

groupthink

Back 16

a narrowing of though by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer, in which to even suggest alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty

Front 17

horticultural society

Back 17

a society based on cultivating plants by the use of hand tools

Front 18

hunting and gathering society

Back 18

a human group that depends on hunting and gathering for its survival

Front 19

Industrial Revolution

Back 19

the third social revolution, occurring when machines powered by fuels replaced most animal and human power

Front 20

industrial society

Back 20

a society based on the use of machines powered by fuels

Front 21

in-groups

Back 21

groups toward which people feel loyalty

Front 22

instrumental leader

Back 22

an individual who tries to keep the group moving toward its goals; also known as a task-oriented leader

Front 23

laissez-faire leader

Back 23

an individual who leads by being highly permissive

Front 24

leader

Back 24

someone who influences other people

Front 25

leadership styles

Back 25

ways in which people express their leadership

Front 26

out-groups

Back 26

groups toward which people feel antagonism

Front 27

pastoral society

Back 27

a society based on the pasturing of animals

Front 28

postindustrial (information) society

Back 28

a society based on information, services, and high technology,, rather than on raw materials and manufacturing

Front 29

primary group

Back 29

a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association, and cooperation

Front 30

reference group

Back 30

a group whose standards we refer to as we evaluate ourselves

Front 31

secondary group

Back 31

compared with a primary group, a larger, relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity

Front 32

shaman

Back 32

the healing specialist of a tribe who attempts to control the spirits thought to cause a diesease or injury; commonly called a witch doctor

Front 33

small group

Back 33

a group small enough for everyone to interact directly with all the other members

Front 34

social network

Back 34

the social ties radiating outward from the self that link people together

Front 35

society

Back 35

people who share a culture and a territory

Front 36

triad

Back 36

a group of three people

Front 37

alienation

Back 37

Marx's term for workers' lack of connection to the product of their labor; caused by their being assigned repetitive tasks on a small part of a product, which leads to a sense of powerlessness and normlessness.

Front 38

bureaucracy

Back 38

a formal organization with a hierarchy of authority and a clear division of labor; emphasis on impersonality of positions and written rules, communications, and records

Front 39

capitalism

Back 39

an economic system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition

Front 40

corporate culture

Back 40

the orientations that characterize corporate work settings

Front 41

formal organization

Back 41

a secondary group designed to achieve explicit objectives

Front 42

goal displacement

Back 42

an organization replacing old goals with new ones; also known as goal replacement

Front 43

humanizing a work setting

Back 43

organizing a workplace in such a way that it develops rather than impedes human potential.

Front 44

iron law of oligarchy (the)

Back 44

Robert Michels's term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite.

Front 45

McDonaldization of society (the)

Back 45

the process by which ordinary aspects of life are rationalized and efficiency comes to rule them, including such things as food preparation.

Front 46

Peter Principle

Back 46

a tongue-in-cheek observation that the members of an organization are promoted for their accomplishments until they reach their level of incompetence; there they cease to be promoted, remaining at the level at which they con no longer do good work.

Front 47

rationality

Back 47

using rules, efficiency, and practical results to determine human affairs.

Front 48

rationalization of society (the)

Back 48

a widespread acceptance of rationality and social organizations that are built largely around this idea

Front 49

traditional society

Back 49

a society in which the past is thought to be the best guide for the present; characterized tribal, peasant, and feudal societies.

Front 50

voluntary association

Back 50

a group made up of people who voluntarily organize on the basis of some mutual interest; also known as voluntary memberships and voluntary organizations

Front 51

capital punishment

Back 51

death penalty

Front 52

control theory

Back 52

the idea that two control systems-inner and outer controls-work against our tendencies to deviate

Front 53

corporate crime

Back 53

crimes committed by executives in order to benefit their corporation

Front 54

crime

Back 54

the violation of norms written into law

Front 55

criminal justice system

Back 55

the system of police, courts, and prisons set up to deal with people who are accused of having committed a crime

Front 56

cultural goals

Back 56

the objectives held out as legitimate or desirable for the members of a society to achieve

Front 57

degradation ceremony

Back 57

a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to reshape someone's self by stripping away that individual's self-identity and stamping a new identity in its place

Front 58

deviance

Back 58

the violation of norms (or rules or expectations)

Front 59

differential association

Back 59

Edwin Sutherland's term to indicate that people who associate with some groups learn an "excess of definitions" of of deviance, increasing the likelihood that they will become deviant

Front 60

genetic predisposition

Back 60

inborn tendencies (for example, a tendency to commit deviant acts)

Front 61

hate crime

Back 61

a crime that is punished more severely because it is motivated by hatred (dislike, hostility, animosity) of someone's race-ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability, or national origin.

Front 62

illegitimate opportunity structure

Back 62

opportunities for crimes that are woven into texture of life

Front 63

institutionalized means

Back 63

approved ways of reaching cultural goals

Front 64

labeling theory

Back 64

the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others' perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into either deviance or conformity

Front 65

medicalization of deviance

Back 65

to make deviance a medical matter; a symptom of some underlying illness that needs to be treated by physicians

Front 66

negative sanction

Back 66

an expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a prison sentence or an execution.

Front 67

personality disorders

Back 67

the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms

Front 68

police discretion

Back 68

the practice of the police, in the normal course of their duties, to either arrest or ticket someone for an offense or to overlook the matter.

Front 69

positive sanction

Back 69

a reward or positive reaction for following norms, ranging from a smile to a material award

Front 70

recidivism rate

Back 70

the proportion of released convicts who are rearrested

Front 71

serial murder

Back 71

the killing of several victims in three or more separate events

Front 72

social control

Back 72

a group's formal and informal means of enforcing its norms

Front 73

social order

Back 73

a group's usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives

Front 74

stigma

Back 74

"blemishes" that discredit a person' claim to a "normal" identity

Front 75

strain theory

Back 75

Robert Merton's term for the strain engendered when a society socializes large numbers of people to desire a cultural goal (such as success) but withholds from some the approved means of reaching that goal; one adaptation to the strain is crime, the choice of an innovative means (one outside the approved system) to attain the cultural goal

Front 76

street crime

Back 76

crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary

Front 77

techniques of neutralization

Back 77

ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect (or neutralize) society's norms

Front 78

white-collar crime

Back 78

Edwin Sutherland's term for crimes committed by people of respectable and high social status in the course of their occupations; for example, bribery of public officials,securities violations, embezzlement, false advertising, and price fixing

Front 79

correspondence principle

Back 79

the sociological principle that schools correspond to (or reflect) the social structure of their society

Front 80

credential society

Back 80

the use of diplomas and degrees to determine who is eligible for jobs, even though the diploma or degree may be irrelevant to the actual work

Front 81

cultural transmission of values

Back 81

the process of transmitting values from one group to another; often refers to how cultural traits are transmitted across generations and, in education, the ways in which schools transmit a group's culture, especially its core values.

Front 82

education

Back 82

a formal system of teaching knowledge, values, and skills

Front 83

functional illiterate

Back 83

a high school graduate who has difficulty with basic reading and math

Front 84

gatekeeping

Back 84

the process by which education opens and closes doors of opportunity; another term for the social placement function of education

Front 85

grade inflation

Back 85

higher grades given for the same work; a general rise in student grades without a corresponding increase in learning

Front 86

hidden curriculum

Back 86

the unwritten goals of schools, such as obedience to authority and conformity to cultural norms

Front 87

latent functions

Back 87

unintended beneficial consequences of people's actions

Front 88

mainstreaming

Back 88

helping people to become part of the mainstream of society

Front 89

mandatory education laws

Back 89

laws that require all children to attend school until a specified age or until they complete a minimum grade in school

Front 90

manifest functions

Back 90

the intended beneficial consequences of people's actions

Front 91

self-fulfilling prophecy

Back 91

Robert Merton's term for an originally false assertion that becomes true simply because it was predicted

Front 92

social placement

Back 92

a function of education-funneling people into a society's various positions

Front 93

social promotion

Back 93

passing students to the next level even though they have not mastered basic materials

Front 94

tracking

Back 94

in education, the sorting of students into different educational programs on the basis of perceived abilities

Front 95

animism

Back 95

the belief that all objects in the world have spirits, some of which are dangerous and must be outwitted

Front 96

anti-Semitism

Back 96

prejudice, discrimination, and persecution directed against Jews

Front 97

born again

Back 97

a term describing Christians who have undergone a religious experience so life transforming that they feel they have become new persons.

Front 98

charisma

Back 98

literally, an extraordinary gift from God; more commonly, an outstanding, "magnetic' personality

Front 99

charismatic leader

Back 99

literally, someone to whom God has given a gift; in its extended sense, someone who exerts extraordinary appeal to a group of followers

Front 100

church

Back 100

according to Durkheim, one of the three essential elements of religion-a moral community of believers; also refers to a large, highly organized religious group that has formal, sedate worship services with little emphasis on evangelism, intense religious experience, or personal conversion

Front 101

civil religion

Back 101

Robert Bellah's term for religion that is such an established feature of a country's life that its history and social institutions become sanctified by being associated with God

Front 102

cosmology

Back 102

teachings or ideas that provide a unified picture of the world

Front 103

cult

Back 103

a new religion with few followers, whose teachings and practices put it at odds with the dominant culture and religion

Front 104

denomination

Back 104

a "brandname" within a major religion, for example, Methodist or Baptist

Front 105

ecclesia

Back 105

a religious group so integrated into the dominant culture that it is difficult to tell where the one begins and the other leaves off, also called a state religion

Front 106

evangelism

Back 106

an attempt to win converts

Front 107

fundamentalism

Back 107

the belief that social change, especially in values, is threatening true religion and that the religion needs to go back to its fundamentals (roots, basic beliefs, and practices)

Front 108

functional equivalent

Back 108

a substitute that serves the same functions (or meets the same needs)as religion; for example, psychotherapy

Front 109

modernization

Back 109

the transformation of traditional societies into industrial societies

Front 110

monotheism

Back 110

the belief that there is only one god

Front 111

polytheism

Back 111

the belief that there are many gods

Front 112

profane

Back 112

Durkheim's term for common elements of everyday life

Front 113

Protestant ethic

Back 113

Weber's term to describe a self-denying, highly moral life accompanied by hard work and frugality

Front 114

reincarnation

Back 114

in Hinduism and Buddhism, the return of the soul (or self) after death in a different form

Front 115

religion

Back 115

according to Durkheim, beliefs and practices that separate the profane from the sacred and unite its adherents into a moral community

Front 116

religious experience

Back 116

a sudden awareness of the supernatural or a feeling of coming in contact with God

Front 117

rituals

Back 117

ceremonies or repetitive practices; in religion, observances or rites, often intended to evoke a sense of awe of the sacred

Front 118

sacred

Back 118

Durkheim's term for things set apart or forbidden that inspire fear, awe, reverence, or deep respect

Front 119

sect

Back 119

a group larger than a cult that still feels substantial hostility from and toward society

Front 120

secular

Back 120

belonging to the world and its affairs

Front 121

secularization of culture

Back 121

the process by which a culture becomes less influenced by religion

Front 122

secularization of religion

Back 122

the replacement of a religion's "other worldly" concerns with concerns about "this world"

Front 123

spirit of capitalism

Back 123

Weber's term for the desire to accumulate capital-not to spend it, but as an end in itself-and to constantly reinvest it

Front 124

state religions

Back 124

a government-sponsored religion; also called ecclesia

Front 125

depersonalization

Back 125

ddealing with people as though they were objects; in the case of medical care, as though patients were merely cases and diseases, not people