Sociology Exam 3

Front 1

What do sociologists focus on when they study gender

Back 1

the process by which people learn what it means to be male or female, a blend of the two, or some other gender. also, how gender ideals shape choices in life, and a sense of self

Front 2

Gender Ideal

Back 2

a caricature that exaggerates the characteristics that make someone a so called perfect male or female in a particular social context

Front 3

Sex

Back 3

a biological concept based on primary sex characteristics

Front 4

Intersexed

Back 4

a broad term used by the medical profession to classify people with some mixture of male and female biological characteristics

Front 5

Secondary sex characteristics

Back 5

physical traits not essential to reproduction (such as breast development, quality of voice, distribution of facial and body hair) that result from the action of so called male (androgen) and female (estrogen) hormones

Front 6

Gender

Back 6

a social distinction based on culturally conceived and learned ideals about appropriate appearance, behavior, and mental and emotional characteristics for males and females

Front 7

Masculinity

Back 7

the physical, behavioral, and mental and emotional traits believed to be characteristics of males

Front 8

Femininity

Back 8

the physical, behavioral, and mental and emotional traits believed to be characteristic of females

Front 9

are masculinity and femininity biologically or socially created

Back 9

socially

Front 10

Gender polarization

Back 10

the organizing of social life around male female ideals, so that someone's assigned sex influences every aspect of his or her life, including how to dress, the time to get up in the morning, what to do before going to bed at night, and even the ways of expressing emotion and experiencing sexual attraction

Front 11

Alice Baumgartner Papageorgiou

Back 11

asked elementary and high school students how their lives would be different if they were the other sex

Front 12

What did Papageorgiou's study find

Back 12

the boys believed their lives would change in negative ways if they became girls. girls believed that they would become less emotional, and lead more active and less restrictive lives

Front 13

What are terms for people who identify as neither man or woman, but something in between

Back 13

third sex, other gender, transsexual

Front 14

Augama

Back 14

in samoa, an organization of men without titles that was considered the strength of the village

Front 15

What led to the decline of the Augama in Samoa

Back 15

the rise of compulsory education, the shift away from an agriculture based to a wage based economy, and the introduction of laborsaving technologies

Front 16

What does the study of sexuality consider

Back 16

the range of sexual expressions and the social activities, behaviors, and thoughts that generate sexual sensation

Front 17

Sexual Orientation

Back 17

an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. sexual orientation also refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership in a community of others who share those attractions

Front 18

What continuum does sexual orientation fall on

Back 18

its endpoints are exclusive attraction to the other sex, and exclusive attraction to the same sex

Front 19

Sexual scripts

Back 19

responses and behaviors that people learn, in much the same way that actors learn lines for a play, to guide them in sexual activities and encounters

Front 20

Through what social mechanisms are gender expectations learned and culturally imposed

Back 20

socialization, the commercialization of gender ideals, and situational constraints

Front 21

What acts to shape our gender identity

Back 21

agents of socialization such as significant people. groups and institutions

Front 22

Beverly Fagot

Back 22

observed how preschool teachers shape gender identity.

Front 23

Janet Lee Mills

Back 23

says that norms governing body language suggest power, dominance, and high status. however norms governing female body language suggest subordination, vulnerability, and low status

Front 24

Commercialization of gender ideals

Back 24

the process of introducing products to the market by using advertising and sales campaigns that promise consumers they will achieve masculine and feminine ideals if they buy and use the products

Front 25

Structural constraints

Back 25

the established and customary rules, policies, and day to day practices that affect a person's life chances

Front 26

What roles are men and women pushed into

Back 26

women are pushed into work roles that emphasize personal relationships and nurturing skills, or that pertain to family oriented and feminine products and services. men are pushed into jobs that emphasize decision making and control and that pertain to masculine products and services

Front 27

What do sociologists seek to identify when studying inequality between males and females

Back 27

the areas in which one gender is advantaged relative to another, as well as explanations

Front 28

When does social inequality exist between men and women

Back 28

when one or the other:

1. faces greater risks to physical and emotional well being

2. possesses a disproportionate share of income and other valued resources

3. is accorded more opportunities to succeed

Front 29

Cynthia Fuchs Epstein

Back 29

points out that history is filled with examples of women doing what has been thought of as men's work; it is also filled with examples of women doing things that "no one, including themselves, thought they could, and developed interests no one thought they had"

Front 30

Sexism

Back 30

the belief that one sex- and by extension, one gender- is innately superior to another, justifying unequal treatment of the sexes

Front 31

What four notions do sexism revolve around

Back 31

1. people can be placed into two distinct categories (male and female)

2. a close correspondence exists between a person's reproductive anatomy and other characteristics such as personality

3. reproductive anatomy is so significant that it explains and justifies unequal treatment

4. people who behave in ways that depart from ideals of masculinity and femininity are considered deviant

Front 32

Feminism

Back 32

in its most basic sense, a perspective that advocates equality between men and women

Front 33

Intersectionality

Back 33

the interconnections among socially constructed categories of sex, gender, race, class, sexual orientation, religious affiliation, age, nationality, disability, and other statuses. these statuses combine in complex ways to influence advantages and disadvantages

Front 34

Patricia Hill Collins

Back 34

maintains that sociologists must recognize the statuses that people hold as interlocking categories of analysis that, when taken together, "cultivate profound differences in our personal biography" and the structure of our relationships

Front 35

What does the concept of intersectionality help us see

Back 35

1. no social category is homogeneous

2. taken together, the categories to which people are assigned place them in a complex system of domination and subordination

3. taken together, the effects of the categories a person occupies cannot simply be added together to obtain some grand total

Front 36

Penalties

Back 36

constraints on a person's opportunities and choices, as well as the price paid for engaging in certain activities, appearances, or choices deemed inappropriate of someone in a particular category

Front 37

Privilege

Back 37

a special, often unearned, advantage or opportunity

Front 38

System of oppression

Back 38

one that empowers and privileges some categories of people while disempowering other categories. The act of disempowering includes marginalizing, silencing, or subordinating another

Front 39

What do sociologists seek to understand when studying economic systems

Back 39

systems of production and the way goods and services are distributed.

Front 40

What do sociologists seek to understand when studying political institutions

Back 40

they focus on the way power is acquired, distributed, and wielded

Front 41

Economic system

Back 41

a socially created institution that coordinates human activity in the effort to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services

Front 42

Goods

Back 42

any product that is extracted from the earth, manufactured, or grown, such as food, clothing, petroleum, natural gas, automobiles, coal, computers, and so on

Front 43

Services

Back 43

activities performed for others that result in no tangible product, such as entertainment, transportation, financial advice, medical care, spiritual counseling, and education

Front 44

Surplus wealth

Back 44

wealth beyond what is needed to meet basic human needs, such as food and shelter

Front 45

Hunting and gathering societies

Back 45

do not possess the technology to create and store surplus wealth; people subsist on wild animals and vegetation

institution of family is central to peoples lives

division of labor is simple

Front 46

Douglas Massey

Back 46

predicts that the last hunter gatherers on the planet will cease to exist by 2020

Front 47

Domestication

Back 47

the process by which plants and animals were brought under human control

Front 48

What societies is domestication the hallmark of

Back 48

pastoral and horticultural

Front 49

Pastoral societies

Back 49

rely on domesticated herd animals to subsist. people living in deserts and other regions in which vegetation was limited adopted pastoralism. most pastoral peoples are nomadic, moving their herd when grazing lands and/or water sources are depleted

Front 50

Horticulture societies

Back 50

rely on hand tools to work the soil, and digging sticks to punch holes in the ground into which seeds are dropped.

grow crops rather than gather food

employ slash and burn technologies

relatively settled

Front 51

What triggered a revolution in agriculture and marked the emergence of agrarian societies

Back 51

the invention of the plow 6,000 years ago

Front 52

Agrarian societies

Back 52

built around the cultivation of crops using plows pulled by animals

dramatic inequality (hereditary monarch such as king)

often engaged in wars to protect or expand territory

Front 53

Industrial societies

Back 53

rely on mechanization or on machines powered by burning wood and fossil fuels

Front 54

Colonization

Back 54

a form of domination in which a foreign power imposes its political, economic, social and cultural institutions on an indigenous population to control their labor, resources, and markets

Front 55

What did the industrial revolution do

Back 55

allowed people to create surplus wealth so vast that it could support a diverse economy and many institutions including schools and hospitals

Front 56

Postindustrial society

Back 56

a society that is dominated by intellectual technologies of telecommunications and computers, not just "large computers but computers on a chip". These intellectual technologies have had a revolutionary effect on virtually every aspect of social life

Front 57

According to Bell, the dominance of intellectual technologies derive from four interdependent revolutionary innovations in:

Back 57

1. electronics that allow for incredible speed of data transmission and calculations

2. miniaturaization or the drastic reduction in size of electronic devices

3. digitalization or the drastic reduction in size of electronic devices

4. software applications that allow people to perform a variety of tasks and participate in simulated exercises

Front 58

Postindustrial societies are distinguished by

Back 58

1. a very large service sector

2. an increased emphasis on education as the avenue of social mobility

3. a recognition that capital is not only the financial but also social

4. the dominance of intellectual technologies

5. the creation of an electronically mediated global communication infrastructure

6. an economy defined not simply by the production of goods but by applied knowledge and the manipulation of numbers, words, and other symbols

Front 59

What is the continuum that the world's economic systems fall along

Back 59

capitalism and socialism on the endpoints

Front 60

Does any economy fully recognize capitalist or socialist principles

Back 60

no

Front 61

Capitalism

Back 61

a profit driven economic system in which the raw materials and the means of producing and distributing goods and services remain privately owned

Front 62

What are capitalist systems governed by

Back 62

the laws of supply and demand, so when consumer demand for a product increases, its price rises

Front 63

What did Karl Marx (the foremost student of capitalism) believe

Back 63

that it was the first economic system with the power to maximize the productive potential of human labor and ingenuity, but he also felt that capitalism ignored too many human needs because it is driven by greed

Front 64

Socialism

Back 64

an economic system in which raw materials and the means of producing and distributing goods and services are collectively owned

Front 65

What is a characteristic of socialism

Back 65

public rather than private ownership

Front 66

Welfare state

Back 66

a term that applies to an economic system that is a hybrid of capitalism and socialism

Front 67

Immanuel Wallerstein

Back 67

the sociologist most frequently associated with world system theory, has written extensively about the 500 year expansion of capitalism that created the world economy

Front 68

Wallerstein's 6 strategies to increase profit during times of economic stagnation

Back 68

1. lower labor costs by finding employees who will work for less; forcing people to work for little to no wages, and automating production

2. secure raw materials at the lowest possible price

3. create new markets that expand the boundaries of the world economy

4. create new products that consumers feel like they need to have

5. improve existing products to make previous versions obsolete

6. finding ways to help people purchase more products by offering higher wages or issuing credit, allowing people to spend beyond their means

Front 69

Core economies

Back 69

includes the wealthiest, most highly diversified economies with strong, stable governments. (The US, Japan, Germany, France, Canada, UK)

Front 70

Peripheral economies

Back 70

built on a few commodities or even a single commodity (coffee, tobacco). has longstanding relationships with one or more core economies. operate on the so called fringes of the world economy, widespread and chronic poverty

Front 71

Semiperipheral economies

Back 71

characterized by moderate wealth (but extreme inequality) and moderately diverse economies

Front 72

Who exploits who

Back 72

core economies exploit semi peripheral economies who exploit peripheral economies

Front 73

What do the countries known as the big emerging market (BEM) qualify as, and what are they

Back 73

Semi peripheral economies, and they are Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey

Front 74

What is the drop in union membership in the US contributed to

Back 74

1. the declining significance of the manufacturing sector in the overall economy

2. the increasing percentage of females in the workforce who tend to work in occupations that have not been traditionally unionized

3. the increasing global competition for jobs that has added pressure to keep wages down and minimize union influence

Front 75

Primary sector

Back 75

economic activities that generate or extract raw materials from the natural environment

Front 76

Secondary sector

Back 76

economic activities that transform raw materials from the materials from the primary sector into manufactured goods

Front 77

tertiary sector

Back 77

economic activities related to delivering services such as health care or entertainment and those activities related to created and distributing information

Front 78

How long has outsourcing in the US been going on

Back 78

the outsourcing of factory jobs from the united states to elsewhere has been going on for at least 50 years now

Front 79

Political system

Back 79

a socially created institution that regulates the use of and access to power that is essential to articulating and realizing individual, local, regional, national, international, or global interests and agendas

Front 80

Power

Back 80

the probability that an individual can achieve his or her will even against another individual's opposition

Front 81

Authority

Back 81

legitimate power in which people believe that the differences in power are just and proper, that is, people view a leader as being entitled to give order

Front 82

Traditional authority

Back 82

a type of authority that relies on the sanctity of time honored norms that govern the selection of someone to a powerful position and that specify the responsibilities and appropriate conduct for the individual selected

Front 83

Legal rational authority

Back 83

a type of authority that rests on a system of impersonal rules that formally specifies the qualifications for occupying a powerful position

Front 84

Charismatic authority

Back 84

a type of authority that derives from the exceptional and exemplary qualities of the person who issues the commands

Front 85

When do charismatic leaders often emerge

Back 85

during times of profound crisis

Front 86

Government

Back 86

the organizational structure that directs and coordinates people's involvement in the political activities of a country or other territory

Front 87

Democracy

Back 87

a system of government in which power is vested in the citizen or "the people" and in which the citizenry participates directly or indirectly in making decisions

Front 88

Totalitarianism

Back 88

a system of government characterized by

1. a single ruling party led by a dictator

2. an unchallenged official ideology that defines a vision of the perfect society

3. a system of social control that suppresses dissent

4. centralized control over the media and the economy

Front 89

Authoritarian government

Back 89

a system of government in which there is no separation of power and a single person, group, or social class holds all power

Front 90

Theocracy

Back 90

a form of government in which political authority rests in the hands of religious leaders or a theologically trained elite. Under this system, there is no separation of church and state

Front 91

Laws

Back 91

formal rules that mandate people to behave in specified ways or to refrain from behaving in some specified way. laws are created by those in power and enforced by regulatory institutions such as police or the military

Front 92

Two major models of power sharing

Back 92

1. power elite: power is held by an elite few

2. pluralist: power is dispensed among competing interest groups

Front 93

Power elite (CW Mills)

Back 93

those few people who occupy such lofty positions in the social structure of leading institutions that their decisions affect millions of people

Front 94

Are power elite free agents?

Back 94

no. according to Mills, they must answer to regulatory bodies, submit to congressional investigations, and live within budget

Front 95

Pluralist models of power

Back 95

a view that sees politics as a plurality of special interest groups competing, compromising, forming alliances, and negotiating with each other for power

Front 96

Issue with the pluralist model

Back 96

even thought there is a countless number of interest groups, we cannot conclude that every special interest groups has enough resources to organize or to influence policies and laws

Front 97

Empire

Back 97

a group of countries under the direct or indirect control of a foreign power or government, which shapes their political, economic, and cultural development

Front 98

Imperialistic power

Back 98

a political entity that exerts control and influence over foreign entities either through military force or through political policies and economic pressures

Front 99

Hegemony

Back 99

a process by which a power maintains its dominance over foreign entities

Front 100

Militaristic power

Back 100

one that believes military strength, and the willingness to use it, is the source of national and even global security

Front 101

Insurgents

Back 101

groups who participate in armed rebellion against some established authority, government, or administration with the hope that those in power will retreat or pull out

Front 102

Aging society

Back 102

one where the number of years one can expect to live after age 65 increases and fertility rates decline to below replacement level, which is 2.1

Front 103

Replacement Level

Back 103

the average number of children women must bear to sustain the size of an existing population (2.1)

Front 104

Family

Back 104

a social institution that binds people together through blood, marriage, law, and or social norms. family members are generally expected to care for and support each other

Front 105

Ideal

Back 105

standard against which real cases can be compared

Front 106

According to functionalists, what 5 functions do families perform?

Back 106

1. regulating sexual behavior

2. replacing the members of society who die

3. socializing the young

4. providing care and emotional support

5. conferring social status

Front 107

Life chances

Back 107

the probability of engaging in critical experiences that increase likelihood of obtaining advantaged status whether that be surviving the first year of life, earning a graduate degree, living independently in old age, living free of disease, and so on

Front 108

Secure parental employment

Back 108

a situation in which at least one parent or guardian is employed full time

Front 109

Friedrich Engels

Back 109

distinguished between productive and reproductive work

Front 110

Productive work

Back 110

work that involves "the production of the means of existence, of food, clothing, and shelter and the tools necessary for that production" (Engels)

Front 111

Reproductive work

Back 111

work that involves bearing children, caregiving, managing households, and educating children

Front 112

What do people consider when choosing partners

Back 112

age, height, weight, income, education, race, sex, social class, and religion, among other things

Front 113

Exogamy

Back 113

norms requiring or encouraging people to choose a partner from a social category other than their own

Front 114

Endogamy

Back 114

norms requiring or encouraging people to choose a partner from the same social category as their own

Front 115

What factors do women consider when choosing how many children to have

Back 115

infant and maternal mortality rates, life expectancy, and projected caregiving responsibilites

Front 116

Total fertility rate

Back 116

the average number of children that a woman bears in her lifetime

Front 117

Life expectancy

Back 117

the average number of years after birth a person can expect to live

Front 118

Are family structures static

Back 118

no, they change is response to larger economic, cultural, historical, and social forces

Front 119

Four specific triggers of change

Back 119

1. fundamental shifts in the economy

2. a decline in parental authority

3. the changing status of children

4. dramatic increases in life expectancy

Front 120

Randall Collins

Back 120

proposed a theory of sexual or gender stratification, AKA the system societies use to rank males and females on a scale of social worth such that the ranking affects life chances in unequal ways

Front 121

Four historical economic arrangements that shape relationships between men and women (collins)

Back 121

1. hunting and gathering societies

2. fortified households

3. private households

4. advanced market economies

5. lesbian and gay marriages and partnerships

Front 122

Fortified Households

Back 122

preindustrial arrangements characterized by a lack of police force or other agency dedicated to social control. the household functions like an armed unit, and the head of household acts as military commander.

have servants

women are treated like sexual property

Front 123

Hunting and Gathering societies (family)

Back 123

sex based division of labor is minimal. women have good social standing

Front 124

Private Households

Back 124

emerged with the establishment of a market economy; a centralized, bureaucratic state, and police. men still monopolize the most important positions and are still heads of household while women are responsible for child bearing. where love first became important

Front 125

Advanced market economies

Back 125

offer widespread employment opportunities for women. women are not men's equal however

Front 126

What made children more expensive to raise

Back 126

the shift away from labor intensive production stripped children of opportunities to make an economic contribution to the family and made children expensive to raise

Front 127

Holger Stub

Back 127

Wrote The Social Consequences of Long Life, describing four ways that gains in life expectancy altered family relationships in the past century

Front 128

four ways that gains in life expectancy altered family relationships in the past century (Stub)

Back 128

1. the chance that a child will lose one or both parents before he or she turns 16 has decreased sharply

2. the potential length of an average marriage has increased

3. people now have more time to choose and get to know a partner, settle down, and decide if they want kids

4. the number of people surviving to old age has increased, thus an increasing percentage of people in their 50s and 60s have surviving parents and older relatives

Front 129

Informal care

Back 129

the caregiving that family members, neighbors, and friends provide in a home setting

Front 130

Caregiver burden

Back 130

the extent to which caregivers believe that their emotional balance, physical health, social life, and financial status suffer because of their caregiver role

Front 131

What do feminists maintain when studying families

Back 131

that they cannot be studied apart from the larger economic and political structures in which they are embedded