Sociology Definitions

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Positivism

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A view that whatever phenomena must be studied using scientific methodology

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Interactionalist/interpretivist perspectives

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The perspective that analysis of society must begin at an individual level and then work up to society

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Quantitative data/research

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Data that can be expressed in numerical form e.g. numbers

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Qualitative data/research

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Data that is expressed in words to describe feelings and attitudes

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Primary data

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Information collected first hand, using an appropriate method.

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Secondary data

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Data collected with references from other sources. Secondary data can be unreliable.

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Hypothesis

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An unverified assumption which may explain an observed phenomenon.

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Sociological methods

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Methods used to analyse or study society e.g. surveys

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Participant observation

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A form of sociological research where the researcher takes part in the social situation under observation.

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Non-participant observation

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A form of sociological research where the researcher does not take part in the social situation being observed.

-this form of research can be unreliable

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Covert observation

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A form of sociological research where the researcher is studying a social situation without the knowledge of the group that they are studying.

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Overt observation

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A form of sociological research where the researcher is studying a social situation with the knowledge of the group that they are studying.

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Structured interviews

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Interviews where respondents are asked exactly the same questions, in the same order and their replies are codified.

-helps to reduce interviewer bias.

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Unstructured interviews

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Have no order, used to probe emotions and attitudes rather than factual information. (Collects qualitative data)

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Semi-structured interviews

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open, allowing new ideas to be brought up during the interview as a result of what the respondent says.

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Case studies

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A detailed in depth study of a group or an event.

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Personal documents

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A term referring to a wide variety of papers and other documentary material which can be used as a valuable source of data.

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Survey

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The systematic collection of data about a given population

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Cross-sectional survey

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Surveys which include the study of a varied population which are divided onto representative sub groups with different characteristics to get an overall picture of the group.

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Longitudinal survey

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A survey that takes place over a long period of time

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Questionnaires

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A widely used tool in data collection which consists of a list of questions

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Content analysis

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A method associated with the study of media, where researchers define a set of categories and then classify the material under study in terms of frequency.

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Functionalism

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A structural theory beginning it's analysis with society rather than the individual

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Pilot studies

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A social survey which tests a design and nature and quality of data generated prior to an actual study.

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Random sampling

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An unbias selection method in which each member of a population has an equal chance to be selected

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Quota sampling

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A sampling method where the researcher has a list of characteristics required of the respondents. Characteristics include age, sex, ethnicity, marital status.

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Snowball sampling

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A sampling method where the researcher gains access to other respondents from a previous respondent. The sample taken is not random.

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Sampling frame

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The survey population from which the sample will be drawn.

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Correlations

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A mutual relationship between two or more variables

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Hawthorne effect

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The unintended effect of overt and/or participant observation (May cause a group/individual to change their usual behaviour)

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Ethics

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I.e morals

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Representativeness

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The degree to which a research study is representative of other similar kinds of groups

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Generalisation

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propositions derived from studying a sample of people with specific characteristics which are applied to all people with those characteristics

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Triangulation

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The practice of using at least 3 research methods when carrying out a peice of research

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Values

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Ideas or beliefs that are thought to be valuable by those that hold them

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Coercion

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Literal Force.

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Caste

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The stratification system of India. Four main stratas, originally based on occupational stratification.

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Poverty

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A state in which an individual or family lacks resources to support a healthy existence

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Poverty line

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A level of income below which an individual or household can be deemed to be in poverty.

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Poverty trap

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A situation in which a number of factors combine to present a person or a household from escaping poverty.

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Poverty cycle

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An explanation of how poverty may be transmitted from one generation to another , suggesting that one aspect if poverty leads to another, with the cycle repeating itself in succeeding generations

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Dependency culture

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When people rely and expect the state to look after them financially thus robbing themselves of self reliance and social responsibility

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Social class

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models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories,the most common being the upper, middle, and lower classes.

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Culture of poverty

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The culture of poverty is a social theory that expands on the cycle of poverty.

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Relative poverty

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The state of being poor with reference to a real or perceived standard of living in a society

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Ethnicity

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A characteristic of social groups which relies upon a shred identity whether this is perceived or real based on common cultural, religious or traditional factors

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Ethnocentric

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Looking at an issue based on the view point of a specific cultural background and therefore obtaining a biased opinion of it

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Underclass

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the lowest social stratum in a country or community, consisting of the poor and unemployed.

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Scape goating

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the practice of singling out any party for unmerited negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat.

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Life chances

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The statistical chances of particular occurrences happening to different groups in society. Life chances address issues such as: education received, income earned, housing types and degrees of health.

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Market situation

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Used by Lockwood to describe the degree of employment security of clerks and other occupational groups

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Occupational structure

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The distribution of different types of occupations in a society. Usually refers to 3 types of work.

-primary sector work

-secondary sector work

-tertiary sector work

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Occupational structure

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The distribution of different types of occupations in a society. Usually refers to 3 types of work.

-primary sector work

-secondary sector work

-tertiary sector work

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Intergenerational social mobility

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The movement between social classes between generations

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Intergenerational social mobility

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The movement between classes within one's own lifetime.

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Proletarianisation

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The process whereby non-manual work comes increasingly to resemble manual work , and non-manual workers adopt the attitudes of the working-class.

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Embourgeoisement

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The argument that the affluent working class are becoming like the middle class in economic standing,lifestyle and attitudes, while the middle class are accepting them as their social equals

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Patriarchy

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A form of society in which males are the rulers and leaders and exercise power, both at the level of society and individual households

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Polygyny

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A form of polygamy where men are allowed to marry more than one woman at a time.

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Polyandry

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A rare form p marriage where women are legally permitted to have more than one husband at a time.

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Polygamy

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A pattern of marriage which allows more than one legal spouse at a time.

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Symmetrical family

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When a family becomes much smaller and privatised and conjugal roles become more 'symmetrical'

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Dysfunctional family

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A family in which conflict, misbehaviour, and often child neglect or abuse on the part of individual parents occur continually and regularly, leading other members to accommodate such actions.

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Dark side of the family

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A concept that suggests that for some individuals a family can be harmful psychologically, emotionally and physically.

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Matriarchy

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a system of society or government ruled by a woman or women

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Patriarchy

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a system of society or government ruled by a man or men.

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Marriage

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The legal union of a man and woman. In some countries same-sex marriages are permitted.

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Cereal packet family

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The socially constructed model laden with assumptions of how families ought to be.

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Child-centeredness

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A family in which most activity and emotional energy is focused on the children, rather than adult desires.

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Commune

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A form of 'family' living in which a group of individuals, either related or not, live together and hold property in common.

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Conjugal roles

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The roles played by a husband and wife within a marriage with particular reference to the domestic division of labour.

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Joint/integrated conjugal roles

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Role relationships within spouses in which there is relatively little domestic division of labour by sex and where household tasks are shared

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Segregated/traditional conjugal roles

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A clear division and separation between the roles of male and female partners in a marriage or in a cohabiting couple.

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Secularization

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The process whereby religious thinking, practice and institutions lose social significance

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Feminism

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The view that examines the world from the point of view of women, coupled with the belief that women are disadvantaged and their interests ignored or devalued in society.

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Kibbutz

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A community established in Israel, with the emphasis on equal­ity, collective ownership of property, and collective childrearing.

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Demographic trends

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Trends in the study of the growth, structure, and movement of human populations.

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Civil partnerships

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a legally recognized union of a same-sex couple, with rights similar to those of marriage.

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Family diversity

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Many different types of families

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New man

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a man who rejects sexist attitudes and the traditional male role, especially in the context of domestic responsibilities and child care.

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Cultural capital

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Desired competences, such as forms of language and expression and valued social skills , which the middle class are able to give their children along with economic capital.

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Anti-school sub culture

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A sub culture which largely and deliberately rejects the values of school.

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State schools

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Schools maintained by the public sector either through local education authorities or directly from the government.

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Hidden curriculum

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All the things taught and learned in education which do not form a part of the overt official curriculum.

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Vocationalism

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A whole series of policies an institutions set up to promote the development of a highly skilled workforce to compete in a global economy

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Compensatory education

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Education which has as its main aim of overcoming perceived deficiencies in a child's education.

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Cultural deprivation

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The notion that the failure of certain groups of children within the education system is a result of their culturally deprived home background.

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Elaborated code

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A form of speech which is formal

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Restricted code

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A form of speech which is informal, can be used between friends or people who are familiar with each other

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Labelling theory

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The theory of how the self-identity and behaviour of individuals may be able to determine or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them.

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Tripartite system

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A system of selective secondary education in England and Wales introduces in 1994. Consisting of secondary grammar, secondary technical and secondary modern.

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Selective education

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Education in which people are selected based on one's educational ability

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Social cohesion

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The willingness of members of a society to cooperate with each other in order to survive and prosper.

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Anomie

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A concept used by Durkhiem to describe a society in which individuals do not have any firm guidelines about the way to behave with each other.

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Crime

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Behaviour which breaks the law of the land.

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Corporate crime

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Law-breaking by the executive of large work organisations, which occurs a a matter of routine in the daily discharge of their duties.

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Sub-culture

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An identifiable group within a society, whose members share common values and have similar behaviour pattern.

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Youth culture

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A concept which suggests that all the young people in a society at any one time share a similar way of life and adopt similar attitudes.

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Stereotyping

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The process whereby groups or individuals are characterized in simplified pejorative terms.

Thus all members of that category are seen in a particular way.

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Stigma

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The process by which individuals are labelled with some marginalizing characteristic e.g mad or deviant.

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Moral panics

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A situation in which the media reporting has created a folk devil of a particular social group and the public demand the authorities to do something about it.

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Digital divide

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The partition between those who have access to digital resources.

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Broadcasting

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to transmit or make public by means of radio or television

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Norm setting

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the way the mass media reinforces conformity to social norms and social alienates those that don’t conform.

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Propaganda

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information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote or publicize a particular political cause or point of view.

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Indoctrination

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to teach (someone) to fully accept the ideas, opinions, and beliefs of a particular group and to not consider other ideas, opinions, and beliefs

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Distortion

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falsified reproduction of information through the media.

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Scape goats

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a person who is unfairly blamed for something that others have done