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250 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does sociology offer?
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a perspective, a view of the world
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Sociological perspective
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stresses the social contexts in which people live
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Society
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a group of people who share a culture and a territory
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Social location
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the corners in life that people occupy because of where they are located in a society
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What makes us do what we do?
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The society in which we grow up and our particular location in that society lie at the center of what we do and what we think
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Science
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requires the development of theories that can be tested by systematic research
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Measured by science, when did sociology appear on the human scene?
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about the middle of the 1800s, when social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas
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What resulted in the birth of sociology?
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The scientific method was being tried out in chemistry and physics about the time that the Industrial Revolution ended. With tradition no longer providing the answers to questions about social life, the logical step was to apply the scientific method to these questions.
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Positivism
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the idea of applying the scientific method to the social world - first proposed by Auguste Comte
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What is sociology defined as?
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the study of society
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Who is often credited with being the founder of sociology? Why?
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Auguste Comte because he developed this idea and coined the term sociology (even though his conclusions have been abandoned)
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Who is sometimes called the second founder of sociology?
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Herbert Spencer
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What phrase did Herbert Spencer coin?
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the survival of the fittest (social Darwinism) - only the most capable and intelligent members of the society survive, while the less capable die out
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What did Karl Marx propose?
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Class Conflict - workers unite in revolution and throw off their chains of bondage resulting in a classless society - people will work according to their capabilities and receive according to their needs
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What did Emile Durkheim identify?
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Social integration, the degree to which people are tied to thier social group, as a key social factor in suicide - people who have weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide
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From Drukheim's study of suicide, we see what principle as being central in his research?
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Human behavior cannot be understood simply in individualistic terms; we must always examine the social forces that affect people's lives
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What idea of Max Weber's is still controversial today?
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Religion was the key factor in the rise of capitalism
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What are sociological theories?
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Statements about how facts are related to one another
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What are sociological theories based on?
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are based on certain basic core assumptions, or basic metaphysical, epistemological and moral premises, about the nature of the social world.
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What are some major sociological research methods used?
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Surveys, observation, experiment, and analysis of existing data
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Functionalist perspective
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Society is made up of interdependent parts that perform functions for society as a whole
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Under the functionalist perspective, it is believed that society is held together by social consensus. What is it?
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The majority agree on what would be good for everybody
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Conflict perspective
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Portrays society as always changing and marked by conflict
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Symbolic interactionist perspective
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A micro view of society - people assign meanings to each other's words and actions - our response to a person's actions is determined by our subjective interpretation of that action
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What is participant observation?
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The researcher takes part in the group they are studying
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What is detached observation?
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The researcher observes as an uninvolved outsider, from a distance
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What are the three primary theoretical frameworks?
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Symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory
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What is symbolic interactionism?
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concentrates on the meanings that underlie people's lives (usually focuses on the micro level)
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What is functional analysis?
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stresses that society is made up of various parts that, when working properly, contribute to the stability of society (focuses on the macro level)
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What is conflict theory?
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stresses inequalities and sees the basis of social life as a competitive struggle to gain control over scarce resources (also focuses on the macro level)
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What is applied sociology?
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sociology that is used to solve social problems
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What is an independent variable?
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A factor that causes a change in another variable
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What is a dependent variable?
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a factor that is changed by an independent variable
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What is a rapport?
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a feeling of trust between researchers and subjects
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What are samples?
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individuals among a target population
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What is social interaction?
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what people do when they are in one another's presence
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What is sociology?
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the scientific study of society and human behaviour
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The ___________ stresses the social contexts in which people are immersed and that influence their lives.
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sociological perspective
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W.E.B. Du Bois
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the first African American to earn a doctrate at Harvard - for most of his career he taught sociology at Atlanta University - was concerned about social injustice, wrote about race relations, and was one of the founders of the National Assocation for the Advancement of Colored People
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Jane Addams
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founder of Hull House - a settlement house in the immigrant community of Chicago - in 1931, was a winner of the Nobel Peace Prize
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Harriet Martineau
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an Englishwoman who published Society in America decades before either Durkheim or Weber was born
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Laud Humphreys
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carried out doctoral research on homosexual activity - to obtain information, he misrepresented himself to his research subjects, when this became known he was questioned on his ethics
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Herbert Spencer
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believed that societies evolve from barbarian to civilized forms - first to use the expression "survival of the fittest"
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Robert Merton
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contributed the terms "manifest and latent functions" and "latent dysfunctions" to the functionalist perspective
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Scientific research follows eight basic steps, what are they?
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Selecting a topic, defining the problem, reviewing the literature, formulating a hypothesis, choosing a research method, collecting the data, analyzing the results, and sharing the results
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What do surveys involve?
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collecting data by having people answer a series of questions
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What is a random sample?
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everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study
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What is a stratified random sample?
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a sample of specific subgroups of the target population in which everyone in the subgroup has an equal chance of being included in the study
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Who are the respondents?
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people who respond to a survey
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What are close-ended questions?
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the respondent selects one answer from a list of possible answers
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What are open-ended questions?
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respondents answer the questions in their own words
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What are unobtrusive measures?
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observing social behaviour of people who do not know they are being studied
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Symbolic interactionists study what?
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How people use symbols to develop their views of the world and to communicate with one another
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What is the central idea of functional analysis?
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Society is a whole unit; it is made up of interrelated parts that work together
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What do functionalists say we need to look at to understand society?
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Structure (how the parts of a society fit together to make the whole) and function (what each part does, how it contributes to society)
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What is a manifest function?
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An action that is intended to help come part of a system
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What is a latent function?
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Unintended consequences that help a system adjust
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What do conflict theorists stress?
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Society is composed of groups that engage in fierce competition for scarce resources
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What is the macro-level?
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large-scale patterns of society
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What is a hypothesis?
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a statemenet of what you expect to find according to predictions that are based on a theory
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What are operational definitions?
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precise ways to measure the variables
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What is culture?
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the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one generation to the next
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What is material culture?
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such things as jewelry, art, buildings, weapons, machines, hairstyles and clothing
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What is nonmaterial culture?
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a group's way of thinking (beliefs and values) and doing (common patterns of behavior: language, gestures, interaction)
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What is culture shock?
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the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life
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What is ethnocentrism?
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a tendency to use our own group's ways of doing things as the yardstick for judging others
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What is cultural relativism?
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trying to understand a culture on its own terms - looking at how the elements of a culture fit together without judging those elements as superior or inferior to one's own way of life
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What is symbolic culture?
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another name for nonmaterial culture - its central component is the symbols that people use
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What are symbols?
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something to which people attach meaning and that they then use to communicate (gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways)
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What are gestures?
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using one's body to communicate with others - shorthand ways to convey messages without using words
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What is language?
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symbols that can be strung together in an infinite number of ways for the purpose of communicating abstract thought
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Our ability to speak provides us with what?
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a social past and future - language allows culture to develop
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What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis indicate?
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rather than objects and events forcing themselves onto our consciousness, it is our language that determines our consciousness, and hence our perception, of objects and events
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What are values?
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ideas of what is desirable in life - standards by which people define what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly
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What are norms?
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rules of behavior that develop out of a group's values
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What are sanctions?
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reactions people get for following or breaking norms
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What are folkways?
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norms that are not strictly enforced
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What are mores?
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norms that we think of as essential to our core values and insist on conformity
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What is a taboo?
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a norm so strongly ingrained that even the thought of its violation is greeted with revulsion
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What is a subculture?
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a world within the larger world of the dominant culture
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What is a counterculture?
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some of the group's values and norms place it at odds with the dominant culture
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What is a pluralistic society? What country is an example of one?
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made up of many different groups - United States
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What are some of the values in U.S. Society?
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achievement and success; individualism; activity and work; efficiency and practicality; science and technology; progress; material comfort; humanitarianism; freedom; democracy; equality; racism and group superiority; education; religiosity; romantic love
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What are value clusters?
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independent values that are clutered together to form a whole
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What is ideal culture?
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refers to the values, norms, and goals that a group considers ideal, worth aspiring to
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What is real culture?
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the norms and values that people actually follow
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What is technology?
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tools and the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools
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What is new technology?
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an emerging technology that has a significant impact on social life
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Technology does what?
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sets a framework for a group's nonmaterial culture
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What is cultural lag and who coined the term?
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not all parts of a culture change at the same pace, when some part of a culture changes, other parts lag behind - William Ogburn
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What did Ogburn point out?
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a group's material culture usually changes first, with the nonmaterial culture lagging behind
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What is cultural diffusion?
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during contacts with other groups people learn from one another, adapting some part of the other's way of life - groups are most open to a change in their technology or material culture
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What is cultural leveling?
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a process in which cultures become similar to one another
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What is social environment?
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the entire human environment including direct contact with others?
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What is socialization?
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when people learn to be members of the human community through human contact
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What is "self"?
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the picture that we have of how others see us, our image of who we are
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Who coined the term 'looking-glass self'?
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Charles Horton Cooley
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What is "looking-glass self"?
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refers to the process by which our self develops thruogh internalizing others' reactions to us
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What are the three elements of the "looking-glass self"?
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1. We imagine how we appear to those around us; 2. We interpret others' reactions; 3. We develop a self-concept
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When does the development of the "self" end?
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Never - it is never a finished project, but is always in process
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What do childern learn during play?
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to "take the role of the other" - to put themselves in someone else's shoes, to understand how someone else feels and thinks and to anticipate how that person will act
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What are significant others?
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individuals who significantly influences one's life, such as parents or siblings
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What is the generalized other?
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oru perception of how people in general think of us
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What are the three stages of "taking the role of others"?
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1. Imitation (under 3 years old); 2. Play (3 - 6 years old); 3. Games
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What is the sensorimotor stage?
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(from birth to about age 2) understanding is limited to direct contact with the environment
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What is the preoperational stage?
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(from about age 2 to age 7) develop the ability to use symbols
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What is the concrete operational stage?
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(from the age of about 7 to 12) reasoning abilities are more developed, but they remain concrete
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What is the formal operational stage?
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(after the age of about 12) children are now capable of abstract thinking
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What is Piaget's contribution to reasoning?
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A basic structure underlies the way we develop reasoning, and children all over the world begin with the concrete and move to the abstract.
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What three elements did Sigmund Freud say personality consisted of?
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id - inborn drives that cause us to seek self-gratification
ego - the balancing force between the id and the demands of society that suppress it superego - conscience |
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What does the superego represent?
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the culture within us, the norms and values we have internalized from our social groups
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What is the central principle of sociology?
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factors such as social class and people's roles in groups underlie their behavior
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What are the six basic emotions that Paul Ekman concluded are universal?
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anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise
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What is being referred to with the following phrase:
society within you |
socialization
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What is gender socialization?
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expecting different attitudes and behaviors from us because we are male or female
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What is the peer group?
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individuals of roughly the same age who are linked by common interests
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What is the mass media?
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forms of communication that are directed to large audiences
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What is social inequality?
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giving privileges and obligations to one group of people while denying them to another
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What are agents of socialization?
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people and groups that influence our orientations to life
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What is anticipatory socialization?
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learning to play a role before entering it
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What is resocialization?
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learning new norms, values, attitudes, and bevahiors to match their new situation in life
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What is total institution?
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a place in which people are cut off from the rest of society and where they come under almost total control of the officials who run the place
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What is a degradation ceremony?
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an attempt to remake the self by stripping away the individual's current identity and stamping a new one in its place
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What is the life course?
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stages of life (from birth to death)
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What is macrosociology?
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places the focus on broad features of society
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What is microsociology?
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the emphasis is place on social interaction, what people do when they come together
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What is social interaction?
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what people do when they come together
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What is social structure?
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the typical patterns of a group, such as its usual relationships between men and women or students and teachers
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What is a social class?
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large numbers of people who have similar amounts of income and education and who work at jobs that are roughly comparable in prestige
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What is status?
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the position that someone occupies
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What is a status set?
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all the statuses or positions that someone occupies
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What is an ascribed status?
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involuntary - you inherit an ascribed status at birth at are also given to you later in life
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What is an achieved status?
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voluntary - you earn or accomplish as a result of your efforts
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What are status symbols?
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signs that identify a status
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What is a master status?
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one that cuts across the other statuses that one holds
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What is status inconsistency?
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a contradiction or mismatch between their statuses
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What are roles?
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the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status
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What is the difference between roles and status?
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You occupy a status and you play a role
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What is a group?
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consists of people who regularly interact with one another
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What are social institutions?
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the ways that each society develops to meet its basic needs
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What are hunting and gathering societies?
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depend on hunting and gathering for their survival - fewest social divisions - most egalitarian
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What are pastoral societies?
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based on the pasturing of animals
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What are horticultural societies?
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based on the cultivation of plants by the use of hand tools
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What are agricultural societies?
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many more people were able to engage in activities other than farming - to develop the things popularly known as culture
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What are industrial societies?
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far more efficient than anything the world had ever seen
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What are postindustrial (information) societies?
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one based on information, services, and the latest technology rather than on raw materials and manufacturing
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What is the bioeconomic society?
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an economy that centers on the application of genetic structures - both plant and animal - for the production of food and medicine
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What is mechanical solidarity?
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people who perform similar tasks develop a shared consciousness, a sense of similarity that unites them into a common whole
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What is organic solidarity?
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like organs - people perform different taks but depend on one another to make the whole
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What is dramaturgy?
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social life is like a drama or a stage play
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What is impression management?
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the efforts to manage the impressions that others receive of us
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What is the difference between role conflict and role strain?
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role conflict is conflict between roles, while role strain is conflict within a role
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What is ethnomethodology?
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study of how people use commonsense understandings to make sense of everyday life
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What is an aggregate?
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consist of individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who do not see themselves as belonging together
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What is a category?
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consists of people who share similar characteristics, such as college women who wear glasses
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What are primary groups?
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those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation
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What are secondary groups?
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based on some interest or activity, and their members are likely to interact on the basis of specific statuses
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What is oligarchy?
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many are ruled by a few
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What are in-groups?
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groups to which we feel loyalty
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What are out-groups?
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those toward which we feel antagonism
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What are reference groups?
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groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves
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What are cliques?
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clusters of people, internal factions
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What is a social network?
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the links between people
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What are bureaucracies?
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no other form of social organization is more efficient
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What is the corporate culture of U.S. compared to Japan?
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U.S. - individualism, job shopping/hopping, work has set hours, perform on job, make decision on own
Japan - teamwork, lifetime security, work is like a marriage, broa training, decision by consensus |
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What are group dynamics?
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how groups influence us and how we affect groups
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What is a small group?
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few enough members that each one can directly interact with all the other members
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What is a dyad?
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smallest possible group, a group of 2 people
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What is s triad?
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group of 3 people
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What is a coalition?
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some group members aligning themselves agains others
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What happens as a small group becomes larger?
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it becomes more stabl, but its intensity and intimacy decrease
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What is a leader?
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someone who influences the behaviors, opinions, or attitudes of others
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What is an instrumental leader?
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tries to keep the group moving toward its goal
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What is an expressive leader?
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increases harmony, lifts group morale, and minimizes conflict
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What is an authoritarian leader?
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one who gives orders
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What is a democratic leader?
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one who tries to gain a consensus
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What is a laissez-faire leader?
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one who is highly permissive
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What is groupthink?
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collective tunnel vision that group members sometime develop
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What makes something deviant?
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it is not the act itself, but the reactions to the act, that make something deviant
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What is deviance?
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any violation of norms
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What is stigma?
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characteristics that discredit people
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What is social order?
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a group's customary social arrangements
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What is social control?
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formal and informal means of enforcing norms
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What are negative sanctions?
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ranges from frowns and gossip to imprisonment and capital punishment
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What are positive sanctions?
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from smiles to formal awards
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What are genetic predispositions?
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inborn tendencies; in this context, to commit deviant acts
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What are personality disorders?
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the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms
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What is differential association?
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we learn to deviate or conform to society's norms by the different groups we associate with
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What is the control theory?
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two control systems work against our motivations to deviate
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What are the control systems?
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inner controls - internailized mobility
outer controls - people |
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What is the labeling theory?
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the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into deviance or conformity
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What are the 5 techniques of neutralization?
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1. denial of resonsibility
2. denial of injury 3. denial of a victim 4. condemnation of the condemners 5. appeal to higher loyalties |
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What do labels do?
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open and close doors of opportunity
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According to functionalists, deviance is functional to society because it contributes to the social order by:
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1. clarifying moral boundaries and affirming norms
2. promoting social unity 3. promoting social change |
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What are institutionalized means?
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legitimate ways of achieving success
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What is the strain theory?
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when people strive to achieve cultural goals but are not presented with institutionalized means of getting there which may result in deviance
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What is white-collar crime?
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crimes that people of respectable and hgih social status commit in the course of their occupations
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What is the recidivism rate?
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percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested
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How do conflict theorists explain deviance?
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the position in power (the capitalist class) imposes its definitions of deviance on other groups (working calss and marginal working class)
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What are common reactions to deviance in the U.S.?
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imprisonment, capital punishment, degradation ceremonies, hate crimes
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What is the medicalization of deviance?
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deviance represents mental illness
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What is social stratification?
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a system in which groups of people are divided into layers according to their relative power, property, and prestige (does not refer to individuals)
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What are the three major systems of social stratification?
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slavery, caste, and class
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What is an ideology?
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beliefs that justify social arrangements
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What is a caste system?
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status is determined by birth and is lifelong
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What is endogamy?
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marriage within their own group, and prohibits intermarriage (caste system)
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What is a class system?
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based primarily on money or material possessions, which can be acquired - so this sysem is much more open
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What is social mobility?
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movement up or down the class ladder
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What did Karl Marx say determined social class?
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means of production - the tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth
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Marx said there are just two classes of people:
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bourgeoisie - those who own the means of production
proletariat - those who work for the owners |
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What did Max Weber say made up social class?
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a combination of property, prestige, and power
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Why is social stratification universal?
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-society must offer people greater awards to attract the most capable ones
-every society must have leadership -resources are limited and an elite emerges as groups struggle for them |
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How are the world's nations stratified?
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Most Industrialized, Industrializing, Least Industrialized
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Why are some nations rich and others poor?
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global stratification can be explained by: colonialism, world system theory, and the culture of poverty
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What is colonialism?
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one country making colonies out of other countries
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What is the world system theory?
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economic and political connections that tie the world's countries together
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What is the culture of poverty?
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a way of life that perpetuates poverty from one generation to the next
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What is social class?
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a large group of people who rank closely to one another in wealth, power, and prestige
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What is the primary dimension of social class?
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wealth - the value of a person's property
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What is power?
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the ability to carry out your will despite resistance
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What is the power elite?
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those who make the big decisions in U.S. society
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What is prestige?
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respect or regard
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What is status consistency?
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ranking high or low on all three dimensions of social class: education, income, and occupational prestige
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What is status inconsistency?
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rankin ghigh on some dimensions of social class and low on others
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What is status?
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our social ranking
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What are the social classes?
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Capitalist, Upper Middle, Lower Middle, Working, Working Poor, Underclass
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Symbolic interactionsist emphasize what?
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people perceive events from their own corner in life
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What aspects of life go untouched by social class?
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no aspects of life go untouched, from marriage to politics
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What are the three basic types of social mobility?
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intergenerational, structural, and exchange
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What is intergenerational mobility?
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a change that occurs between generations (when grown-up children end up on a different rung of the social class ladder than were their parents)
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What is upward social mobility?
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movement up the social class ladder
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What is downward social mobility?
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movement down the social ladder
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What is structural mobility?
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changes in society that cause large numbers of people to move up or down the class ladder
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What is exchange mobility?
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when large numbers of people move up and down the social class ladder but, on balance, the proportions of the social classes remain about the same
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What is the poverty line?
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the official measure of poverty; calculated to include those whose incomes are less than three times a low-cost food budget
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What is one of the strongest factors in poverty?
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race-ethnicity
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As age increases, does poverty also do the same?
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no - as age increases they are less likely than the general population to be poor
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What is the culture of poverty?
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the values and bevahiors of the poor "make them fundamentally different from other Americans, and that these factors are largely responsible for their continued long-term poverty"
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Why are people poor?
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Social structure - features of society deny some people access to education or learning job skills
Characterisitcs of Individuals - dropping out of school, having children in teen years, laziness, lack of intelligence |
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What is the Horatio Alger Myth?
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the belief that anyone can get ahead if only he or she tries hard enough
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What is race?
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a group of people whose perceived physical characteristics distinguish it from another group
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What is a genocide?
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the attempt to destroy people because of their presumed race or ethnicity
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What is ethnicity/ethnic?
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people who identify with one another on the basis of common ancestry and cultural heritage
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What is a minority group?
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people who are singled out for unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination
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What is a melting pot?
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the view that Americans from different backgrounds would blend into a sort of ethnic stew
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What is discrimination?
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an action - unfair treatment directed against someone
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What is prejudice?
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an attitude - prejudging of some sort, usually in a negative way
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What is institutional discrimination?
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negative treatment of a minority group that is built into a society's institutions
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What is gender stratification?
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males' and females' unequal access to power, prestige, and property
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Why are gender and age so significant?
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they are master statuses
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