Sociology Ch. 4 Terms

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agents of socialization

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those groups, institutions, and people from which we learn the patterns of our culture.

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anticipatory socialization

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social learning that is directed towards occupying a new position and the expected behaviors of that position.

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concrete operational stage

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the stage of development in which children begin to think in terms of actual events and objects and understand causal relationships.

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conventional level

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a level of moral development in which children begin to evaluate behavior in terms of right and wrong.

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differential socialization

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the process by which members of the same society (and even the same family) are raised differently based upon the different roles they are expected to perform as adults.

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ego

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the conscious, reality-oriented component of the mind that strives to balance the demands of the id with those of the superego.

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ethnic (or racial) socialization

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those components of socialization that transmit messages concerning the status of one's ethnic (or racial) group in relation to others while facilitating a sense of identity based upon ethnicity (or race).

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formal operational stage

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a final stage of development in which children learn the ability to think abstractly and critically.

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game stage

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the final stage in the development of self, during which children become aware of the generalized other and are able to view a situation from the perspective of multiple others.

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gender socialization

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that portion of socialization involving particular messages about what it means to be male or female in a society.

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generalized other

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the commonly accepted cultural norms and values that we use as a reference in evaluating ourselves.

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I

Back 12

the subjective, spontaneous, and unique element of self.

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id

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the component of personality that represents a human being's basic biological needs and demands instant gratification.

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me

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the objective element of self, consisting of the internalized attitudes and expectations of the larger social environment.

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mind

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the capacity to understand symbols.

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peer group

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a group of people who share similar ages, interests, and social positions.

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play stage

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the second stage in the development of self, during which children learn to use language and other symbols, which then enables them to pretend to take the roles of specific others.

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postconventional level

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the final level of moral development, in which behavior is evaluated in terms of abstract ethical principals that may transcend rules and laws.

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preconventional level

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the stage of moral development in which children give little consideration to the views of others and experience the world in terms of what gives them pain or pleasure.

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preoperational stage

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the stage of development in which children learn to use symbols and mental images to understand the world around them.

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preparatory stage

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the first stage in the development of self, during which children largely imitate the world around them.

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resocialization

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learning a different set of values, norms, and attitudes from those we have previously learned.

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self

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that portion of an individual's personality composed of self-image and self-awareness.

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sensorimotor stage

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the stage of development where children can only understand the world around them through their five senses.

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socialization

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the lifelong process by which individuals learn their culture and develop their human potential.

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superego

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the moral and ethical aspects of personality shaped by the culture in which the child lives.

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taking the role of the other

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to be able to see one's self as specific other people see one.

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total institutions

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an environment in which people are isolated from the rest of society and under the continuous control control of the administrative staff.

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Charles Horton Cooley

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symbolic-interactionist who believed in the "I" and "me" components of the self.

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George Herbert Mead

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symbolic-interactionist who developed the concept of the looking glass self.

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What is socialization? How is it a process?

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Socialization is a lifelong process by which individuals learn the culture of their society and develop their capacities for complex thought and action.

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Why is socialization important?

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Socialization is important for many reasons. Sustained social interaction with others is necessary to develop our human potential. Learning the values and norms of one's culture helps guide an individual's behavior, goals, beliefs, and values in socially approved directions. Socialization facilitates the development of self-identity and personality.

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Describe the stages of moral development and how Gilligan's theories and Kohlberg's theories differ between genders.

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Using a sample of just boys, Kohlberg identified three stages of moral development. Moral development begins roughly at age 7. In the preconventional level, children primarily experience the world in terms of what gives them pain or pleasure, with little consideration given to the concerns of others. In the conventional level, which begins at age ten, children evaluate behavior in terms of right or wrong, with reference to the expectations of others and their culture. Not everyone reaches the postconventional stage of moral development. In this stage, behavior is evaluated in terms of abstract principals and ethical beliefs that may transcend rules and laws. Gilligan extended Kohlberg's analysis to girls. She found that boys and girls have different means of determining right and wrong, due to the fact that they are raised differently. Boys have a justice perspective that relies upon rules and laws. Girls have a care and responsibility perspective that judges actions on the basis of personal relationships and loyalty. Boys, for example, are likely to view stealing as wrong because it breaks the law and violates common morality. In contrast, girls are more likely to ponder the motives of why someone would steal; they would likely be sympathetic toward a person who stole to buy medicine for a severely ill child.

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What are the four main agents of socialization? What role do they play in the socialization process and which has the greatest impact?

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There are four main agents of socialization: family, peers, school, and the mass media. Families have arguably the greatest impact on socialization, as they teach children cultural values, norms, and symbols. They also locate children in the social structures of class, religion, and ethnicity. A child's initial self-image develops in the family. The influence of peer groups is greatest during adolescent, providing children with a sense of belonging as well as an identity distinct from their family. Schools socialize children to specific skills, knowledge, and cultural values while enlarging their social worlds beyond their specific groups. The media exposes people to current events, controversial issues, and different cultures and people.

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Explain the Freudian view of how personality and self-identity develop.

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Freud believed the mind was composed of three elements-the id, the ego, and the superego. The development of self-identity and personality is shaped by the interplay of these three elements. The id represents basic biological needs and demands personality and is composed of internalized understandings of important cultural standards of conduct. Essentially, it is one's conscience. The ego is the conscious and reality-oriented part of the mind. It attempts to balance the id's need for immediate gratification with the superego's need to restrain certain behaviors. The ego channels the id into socially acceptable outlets of expression.

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What is human cognition? Describe Piaget's model of how human cognition develops.

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Human cognition refers to how people think. Piaget believed that the capacity for human cognition undergoes four stages of development, beginning at birth. During the sensorimotor stage, children understand their world only through their five senses. During preoperational stage, which begins at age 2, children begins to interpret the world around them using symbols and mental images. The concrete operational stage begins at age 7. In this stage, children think in terms of specific events and objects and perceive causal relationships and can lookat the world from the viewpoints of others. During the formal operational stage, which begins at age twelve, the ability to think abstractly and critically develops.

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Distinguish between differential socialization, anticipatory socialization, and resocialization.

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Differential socialization is the process whereby different members of a society (and even of the same family) are raised differently based upon the different roles they are expected to occupy as adults. It occurs along gender and ethnic lines. It can also occur by birth order, such that first-born children may be raised differently than latter born children. Anticipatory socialization is social learning directed toward achieving a desired postion, such as spouse or employee. Resocialization involves the learning of new norms, values, and attitudes. It can occur voluntarily, such as by joining the military, or involuntarily, such as being incarcerated in prison.

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According to Mead, how does the sense of self develop?

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Mead believed that the sense of self developed in three stages. Children largely imitate the world around them during the preparatory stage. During the play stage (ages 3-5), children learn to use symbols, which enables them to take the role of the other--to see themselves as specific other people see them. This enables children to evaluate themselves more objectively, and this ability represents the development of when children enter school, children start to view themselves and the world from the perspective of multiple different roles. The child develops a sense of the generalized other in this stage, which is the internalization of commonly accepted cultural norms and values.

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How do the sociological theories of human development differ from psychological theories?

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Sociological theories of human development emphasize the role of sustained social interaction with others in the socialization process. Psychological theories tend to emphasize the aspects of development internal to the individual rather than the broader social context in which development occurs.