Sociology Ch 1 Module 2

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causal relationship

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A relationship in which one state of affairs (the effect) is brought about by another (the cause).

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causation

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The causal influence of one factor, or variable, upon another. A cause and effect relationship exists whenever a particular event or state of affairs (the effect) is produced by the existence of another (the cause). Causal factors in sociology include the reasons individuals give for what they do, as well as external influences on their behavior.

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comparative questions

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Questions concerned with drawing comparisons between different human societies for the purposes of sociological theory or research.

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comparative research

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Research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies.

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controls

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Statistical or experimental means of holding some variables constant in order to examine the causal influence of others.

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correlation

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The regular relationship between two variables, often expressed in statistical terms. Correlations may be positive or negative. A positive correlation between two variables exists when a high rank on one variable is associated with a high rank on the other. A negative correlation exists when a high rank on one variable is associated with a low rank on the other.

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correlation coefficients

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The measure of the degree of correlation between variables.

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degree of dispersal

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The range or distribution of a set of figures.

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dependent variable

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A variable, or factor, causally influenced by another (the independent variable).

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developmental questions

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Questions that sociologists pose when looking at the origins and path of development of social institutions from the past to the present.

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empirical investigations

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Factual inquiries carried out in any area of sociological study.

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ethnography

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The firsthand study of people using participant observation or interviewing.

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experiment

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A research method in which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and systematic way, either in an artificial situation constructed by the researcher or in naturally occurring settings.

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factual questions

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Questions that raise issues concerning matters of fact (rather than theoretical or moral issues).

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hypotheses

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Ideas or guesses about a given state of affairs, put forward as bases for empirical testing.

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independent variable

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A variable, or factor, that causally affects another (the dependent variable).

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life histories

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Studies of the overall lives of individuals, often based on both self-reporting and documents such as letters.

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mean

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A statistical measure of central tendency, or average, based on dividing a total by the number of individual cases.

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measures of central tendency

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The ways of calculating averages.

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median

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The number that falls halfway in a range of numbers-a way of calculating central tendency that is sometimes more useful than calculating a mean.

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mode

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The number that appears most often in a given set of data. This can sometimes be a helpful way of portraying central tendency.

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participant observation

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A method of research widely used in sociology and anthropology, in which the researcher takes part in the activities of the group or community being studied.

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pilot study

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A trial run in survey research.

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population

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The people who are the focus of social research.

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random sampling

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Sampling method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has the same probability of being included.

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reflexivity

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This describes the connections between knowledge and social life. The knowledge we gain about society can affect the way in which we act in it. For instance, reading a survey about the high level of support for a political party might lead an individual to express support for that party too.

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representative sample

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A sample from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population.

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research methods

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The diverse methods of investigation used to gather empirical (factual) material. Different research methods exist in sociology, but the most commonly used are fieldwork (or participant observation) and survey methods. For many purposes, it is useful to combine two or more methods within a single research project.

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sample

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A small proportion of a larger population.

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sampling

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Studying a proportion of individuals or cases from a larger population as representative of that population as a whole.

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standard deviation

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A way of calculating the spread of a group of figures.

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survey

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A method of sociological research in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied.

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theoretical questions

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Questions posed by sociologists when seeking to explain a particular range of observed events. The asking of theoretical questions is crucial to allowing us to generalize about the nature of social life.

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triangulation

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The use of multiple research methods as a way of producing more reliable empirical data than is available from any single method.

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variable

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A dimension along which an object, individual, or group may be categorized, such as income or height.