Sociology

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Research with children reared in orphanages and cases like Genie—the 13½-year-old who had been kept locked in a small room for years—demonstrates

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the importance of early interaction for human development

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Institutionalized children show that traits such as

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intelligence, cooperative behavior, and friendliness are the result of early close relations with other humans.

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what did the The Harlow’s studies of monkeys conclude

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that if isolated for that longer than six months, the more difficult adjustment becomes.

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A. Charles H. Cooley (1864-1929)

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that our sense of self develops from interaction with others. He coined the term “looking glass self” to describe this process

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According to Cooley, this process of looking glass self contains three steps:

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1) we imagine how we look to others; (2) we interpret others’ reactions (how they evaluate us); and (3) we develop a self-concept.

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what did George H. Mead add to Cooleys concept.

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play is critical to the development of a self. In play, we learn to take the role of other

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the development of the self goes through 3 stages

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: (1) imitation (children initially can only mimic the gestures and words of others); (2) play (beginning at age three, children play the roles of specific people, such as a firefighter or the Lone Ranger); and (3) games (in the first years of school, children become involved in organized team games and must learn the role of each member of the team).

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, Jean Piaget (1896-1980) concluded that there are four stages in the development of cognitive skills.

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1. The sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): Understanding is limited to direct contact with the environment
2. The preoperational stage (2-7 years): Children develop the ability to use symbols (especially language), which allow them to experience things without direct contact.
3. The concrete operational stage (7-12 years): Reasoning abilities become much more developed. Children now can understand numbers, causation, and speed, but have difficulty with abstract concepts such as truth.
4. The formal operational stage (12+ years): Children become capable of abstract thinking, and can use rules to solve abstract problems.

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, Jean Piaget (1896-1980) concluded that there are four stages in the development of cognitive skills.

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sensorimotor,preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational stage

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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): believed that personality consists of three elements:

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id, ego and superego

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The id

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inherited drives for self-gratification—demands fulfillment of basic needs such as attention, safety, food, and sex.

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The ego

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balances between the needs of the id and the demands of society

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The superego

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the social conscience we have internalized from social groups—gives us feelings of guilt or shame when we break rules, and feelings of pride and self-satisfaction when we follow them

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Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg concluded that humans go through a sequence of stages in the development of morality.

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1. The amoral stage is when the child does not distinguish between right and wrong.
2. The preconventional stage is when the child follows the rules in order to stay out of trouble.
3. The conventional stage is when the child follows the norms and values of society.
4. The postconventional stage is when the child reflects on abstract principles of right and wrong, using these principles to judge behavior.

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Anthropologist Paul Ekman concluded that everyone experiences six basic emotions:

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anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

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gender roles in socialization.

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A. By expecting different behaviors from people because they are male or female, society nudges boys and girls in separate directions from an early age, and this foundation carries over into adulthood.
B. Parents begin the process;
C. The mass media reinforce society’s expectations of gender in many ways:

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agents of socialization

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family, neighborhood, religion, daycare, school, Peer groups, workplace.

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gender socialization:

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the ways in which society sets children onto different paths in life because they are male or female

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gender role

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the behaviors and attitudes expected of people because they are female or male

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gender

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the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its males and females; masculinity or femininity

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feral children

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children assumed to have been raised by animals in the wilderness and isolated from other humans

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latent functions:

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unintended beneficial consequences of people’s actions (79)

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agents of socialization:

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individuals or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations toward life

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anticipatory socialization:

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the process of learning in advance an anticipated future role or status

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degradation ceremony:

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a term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to strip away someone’s position (social status); in doing so, a new self-identity is stamped on the individual

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ego:

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Freud’s term for a balancing force between the id and the demands of society

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generalized other:

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the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of people “in general”; the child’s ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of a self

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life course:

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the stages of our life as we go from birth to death (83)

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id:

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Freud’s term for our inborn basic drives (69)

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self:

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the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves “from the outside”; the views we internalize of how others see us

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resocialization:

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the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors

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looking-glass self:

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a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others’ reactions to us

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peer group:

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a group of individuals of roughly the same age who are linked by common interests

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mass media:

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forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, television, and blogs that are directed to mass audiences

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manifest functions

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the intended beneficial consequences of people’s action

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taking the role of the other:

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( in someone elses shoes and understanding how someone else feels and thinks and thus anticipating how that person will act

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social environment:

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the entire human environment, including direct contact with others

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transitional older years:

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an emerging stage of the life course between retirement and when people are considered old, approximately age

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transitional adulthood:

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a term that refers to a period following high school when young adults have not yet taken on the responsibilities ordinarily associated with adulthood; also called adultolescence

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significant other:

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an individual who significantly influences someone else’s life

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total institution:

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a place that is almost totally controlled by those who run it, in which people are cut off from the rest of society, and the society is mostly cut off from them

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superego:

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Freud’s term for the conscience; the internalized norms and values of our social groups

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Paul Ekman:

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This psychologist studied emotions in several countries and concluded that people everywhere experience six basic emotions—anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

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Charles Horton Cooley:

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Cooley studied the development of the self, coining the term “the looking-glass self.”

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Patricia and Peter Adler:

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These sociologists have documented how peer groups socialize children into gender-appropriate behavior.

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Susan Goldberg and Michael Lewis:

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Two psychologists studied how parents’ unconscious expectations about gender behavior are communicated to their young children.

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Sigmund Freud:

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Freud developed a theory of personality development that took into consideration inborn drives (id), the internalized norms and values of one’s society (superego), and the individual’s ability to balance the two competing forces (ego).

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Erving Goffman:

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Goffman studied the process of resocialization in total institutions.(bootcamps,prisons)

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Carol Gilligan:

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Gilligan was uncomfortable with Kohlberg’s conclusions regarding the development of morality because they did not match her own experiences, and Kohlberg had used only boys in his studies. She studied gender differences in morality, concluding that men and women use different criteria in evaluating morality.

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Melissa Milkie:

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This sociologist studied how adolescent boys used media images to discover who they are as males

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Jean Piaget:

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Piaget studied the development of reasoning skills in children and identified four stages.

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H. M. Skeels and H. B. Dye:

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These psychologists studied how close social interaction affected the social and intellectual development of institutionalized children.

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George Herbert Mead:

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Mead emphasized the importance of play in the development of the self, noting that children learn to take on the role of the other and eventually learn to perceive themselves as others do.

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Melvin Kohn:

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Kohn has done extensive research on the social class differences in child-rearing between working-class and middle-class parents.

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Lawrence Kohlberg:

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This psychologist studied the development of morality, concluding that individuals go through a sequence of developmental stages.

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Harry and Margaret Harlow:

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These psychologists studied the behavior of monkeys raised in isolation and found that the length of time they were isolated affected their ability to overcome its effects.

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Adolescence

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age 13-17, suffer inner turmoil and develop their own standards of clothing, hairstyles, language, music, and other claims to separate identities.

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are we prisoners of socialization?

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A. Sociologists do not think of people as little robots who are simply the result of their exposure to socializing agents. Although socialization is powerful and profoundly affects us all, we have a self, and the self is dynamic. Each of us uses his or her own mind to reason and make choices.

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Transitional Adulthood

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(18-29): Adult responsibilities are postponed through extended education such as college.

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Later Middle Years

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(50-65): A different view of life emerges, including trying to evaluate the past and coming to terms with what lies ahead. Individuals may feel they are not likely to get much farther in life, while health and mortality become concerns. However, for most people it is the most comfortable period in their entire lives.

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Early Middle Years

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(30-49): People are surer of themselves and their goals in life than earlier, but severe jolts such as divorce or losing a job can occur. For U.S. women, it can be a trying period, as they try to “have it all”—career and family, etc.

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Childhood

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(birth to 12): No longer see them as mini adults, Industrialization changed the way we see children. The current view is that children are tender and innocent, and parents should guide the physical, emotional, and social development of their children while providing them with care, comfort, and protection.

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The Transitional Older Years:

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Improvements in nutrition, public health, and medical care delay the onset of old age. For many, this period is an extension of middle years. Those who still work or are socially active are unlikely to see themselves as old.