Sociologists

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Elias

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Norms and values change over time. For example, body behaviour that's deemed disgusting now was completely acceptable 100 years ago.

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Strinati

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"Postmodernism tries to come to terms with and understand a media-saturated society. The mass media, for example, were once thought of as holding up a mirror to, and thereby reflecting, a wider social reality. Now that reality is only definable in terms of surface reflection of the mirror" (1992)

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Adorno

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Sees popular culture as a way of socialising the masses into a passive and unquestioning set of attitudes and values.

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Lury

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Identifies five features of a consumer culture:
1. A wide range of consumer goods are available

2. Shopping is seen as a leisure pursuit

3. Different forms of shopping are available

4. Being in debt is accepted as a norm

5. The packaging and promotion of goods is big business

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Simpson (Key Study)

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Studied older gay men in Manchester. Found they had two sets of norms for 'hetero spaces' and 'homo spaces'. Found they 'de-gayed' in 'hetero spaces'.

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Sutton Trust (Key Study)

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About one third of current MPs attended a private school, although private schools educate only 7% of the population. 72% of MPs attended university, with 43% attending one of the leading 13 universities and 27% attending Oxford or Cambridge.

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Postmodernists

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A change in technology and organisations, away from a concern with ends towards which we are meant to be aiming, and instead an emphasis on efficiency of systems. For example, in education there has been a switch from the question 'what is the aim of educating children?',to the question 'how can we improve the quality of the product we deliver to our clients?' Philosophy takes a back seat to efficiency.

The victory of capitalism over the predictions of Marxism. The project of the perfect society has been abandoned. Individual pursuit of goods and services has replaced idealism. (Lyotard, 1986)

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Marxists

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Current Marxist sociology focuses on several areas of interest:

* The relationship between capital and labor
* How the relationships of production produce social class systems and how these are related to other forms of oppression
* Political economy
* The relationship between capitalism and class dynamics on the one hand and culture and cultural institutions on the

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Functionalists

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Functionalism (or structural functionalism) is the perspective in sociology according to which society consists of different but related parts, each of which serves a particular purpose. According to functionalism, sociologists can explain social structures and social behavior in terms of the components of a society and their functions. Auguste Comte helped develop functionalism in the 19th century, and functionalist Emile Durkheim later compared society to the human body. Just as the body consists of different, interrelated organs that enable it to survive, society consists of different components that enable it to survive and which depend on each other. For example, judicial systems help maintain order, and schools teach children. Problems in a single part of society can disrupt the whole.

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Feminists

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Feminism is a complex set of political ideologies used by the women’s movement to advance the cause of women’s equality and to end the sexist theory and practice of social oppression.

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Berger

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Informal Social Control: Economic pressure, Physical violence, Ideology, Social Acceptance and Socialisation.

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Oakley

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Shows how gender roles are socialised in the family by parents who talk differently to their children depending on their gender ('big boys don't cry') and the activities they are channelled into. 'Canalisation' and 'manipulation'.

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McRobbie and Garber

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Conclude that parents treat girls differently to boys, giving more sanctions to girls if they misbehave. They also give boys more freedom but control girls more closely leading to what they call a 'bedroom culture' where girls are forced to spend more time indoors for safety than boys, and their key influences become the media compared to boys who are allowed outside to play.

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Anwar

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British Asian parents expect more loyalty, respect and conformity than white British parents so the family is a stricter agent of socialisation for British Asians.

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Drury

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1/5th of British Asian girls were secretly dating without their parent's permission, so they were prepared to risk the threat of sanctions for romance.

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Dunne

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Children bought up by a homosexual couple were more tolerant, and see sharing and equality as important features of their relationships.

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Gillies

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Social class impacts on parenting style and education. Both working class and middle class parents wanted the best for their children. For middle class parents this meant their children being treated as an individual and as special, their abilities recognised and their talents nurtured. Working class parents wanted their children to keep their head down, to stay out of trouble and to be happy.

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Furedi

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Describes a change in the role of parents in recent years. Nowadays parents main task is seen as protecting their children from danger. Believes parents have become paranoid. He thinks the risk of harm has been exaggerated and the protection is unhealthy.

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Murray (Socialisation)

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Argues single parent families are 'inadequate socialisers' because they do not have two role models, and the lack of a father figure (90% of single parent families are female headed) is destructive for children as women can't discipline their children as well as men.

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Rojek (Socialisation)

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Notes that the attendance of a prestigious public school (preceded perhaps by a full time Nanny or Au pair) may be highly influential in a young child's life, perhaps replacing the parents as the primary socialiser in upper class families.

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Brannen

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Shows how families have become more isolated and fewer people have strong links with their extended family so perhaps the influence of the family is declining.

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Skelton

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Studied a primary school in the North East. The school was set in an economically deprived area with a notorious reputation for crime. The teachers regarded many of the local parents as 'inadequate' and so they felt the school had the important task of socialising children properly.

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Cicourel and Kitsuse

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Showed how careers advice gives a self fulfilled prophecy. Found that careers advisors made assumptions about pupils based on little more than their social class background- those who dressed and spoke as middle class tended to get advice to aim higher than in careers in those who appeared to be in working class.

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Adler and Adler

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Studied a group of white middle class children in USA. Found that the peer group was important in the lives of these children. Those higher in the hierarchy acted as role models and friends imitated their behaviour. Friendship cliques exercise their power by accepting some children and excluding others.

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Hey (Key Study)

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Studied middle class and working class young teenage girls. Found they used informal sanctions such as gossip and exclusion to make their friends conform to their ideals of sexuality. Ethnography and examination of notes.

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Renold

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Primary school boys would hide their academic success in order to avoid teasing from their pals.

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Sewell

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Argues that black working class boys in inner cities often become anti school partly due to peer groups focussing media stars such as rappers, who prioritise values of consumerism and deviance instead of schoolwork.

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Jacobson (key study)

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Shows how British muslims tend to stick with peers from the same religious background. She found they kept a 'psychological distance' from non-muslims as this helped adhere to their religious values.

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Poole (key study)

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Carried out an analysis of how the news reported on Islam and Muslims. Found they rarely appeared in 'normal' news stories. Poole found her sample of news readers recognised they sometimes had negative views as a result of reading such articles.

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Haste

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Showed that having the latest or coolest mobile phone could give more status to its owner and some children were disadvantaged by their lack of access to such status symbols.

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Butler

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Found negative stereotypes on television and in the news picutre the elderly as helpless, confused, resistant to change, ill and unhappy.

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Waddington

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Research shows how canteen culture can help socialise police officers. They learn from listening to other officers telling their war stories- how they overcame tricky situations- and pick up practical advice such as 'you can't always play it by the book'.

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Skeggs

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Carried out research with a group of women retraining to become health care workers. She found that as their training progressed the women were re-socialised into new behaviours. For example, although they wore skirts, high heels and make up outside of work they began to realise this was not the norm inside their new career.

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Bourdieu

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Suggests that social classes have their own cultural values, tastes and preferences. This expresses itself in things like their choice of food, music, newspapers and leisure pursuits.

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Roberts

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Less than 1% of the population is Upper Class. Middle class place a high value on the ideas of a 'career' and meritocracy.

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Scott

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Upper class is 'characterised by a high degree of social cohesion, the main supports of this cohesion being its system of kinship and educational experience'.

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Rojek (Class)

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Argues that for upper class work is valued as a source of pleasure, fun and excitement.

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Douglas

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Middle class parents take more of an interest in their children's education than working class parents.

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Chapman

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Identifies key middle class values as:

-Social Aspiration

-Social Anxiety

-Domesticity

-Conservatism

-Social Comparability

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Bernstein

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Suggested that the language codes taught by middle class parents contributed to educational success.

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King and Raynor

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'The picture that emerges of the child in the middle class family is fairly consistent. The home provides material, intellectual and motivational resources deliberately provided by parents to further the development of the child, which grows up with a belief in its own potency, a positive attitude towards school and the expectation of educational and occupational success'.

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Young and Wilmott

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The traditional working class:

Male Breadwinners

Home

Family

Community

Class concsiousness

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Goldthorpe and Lockwood

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The new working class:

Leisure

Materialism

Changing gender roles

Privatism

Social mobility

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Murray (Class)

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Believes in an underclass who need to be extinguished from society.

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Marshall et al

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Found that about 60 percent of the sample thought of themselves belonging to a particular social class, and over 90 per cent could place themselves in a class if prompted.

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Savage et al

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Investigated the class identities of 178 people in Manchester. They found that very few of their sample believed Britain was a classes society.

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Mead

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Showed that cultural flexibility of gender in her famous study of three New Guinea tribes. In the Arapesh both sexes were gentle and submissive. In Mundugamor both sexes were agrressive, rough and competitive. In Tchambuli the gender roles were reversed of Western stereotypes.

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Stantham

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Studied parents who were deliberately trying to avoid gender stereotyping their children. She found it was impossible to overcome the cultural pressure for their children to behave in gender stereotyped ways.

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Skelton (Gender)

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Found that teachers who could not recall a boys name would refer to 'you' or 'that boy' or if it was a girl 'darling' or 'sweetheart'. Posters on the walls of the school showed boys being active and naughty but girls being passive and good.

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Connelll

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Pinned hegemonic masculinity. Hegemonic means dominating- this is because it crowds out other masculine styles such as artistic and gay masculine identities. It is a style of masculinity which stresses toughness, competition, hierarchy and aggression.

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Renold (Gender)

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Found academic boys hid their success and teased other boys and girls to seem 'cool'.

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Lees

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Studied London female teenagers. Found they places a lot of stress on looking right. She believed they were forced in order to show they were 'good' girls rather than 'slags'.

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Gauntlett

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Identifies the following changed in prime time TV shows:

-A signifiant increase in the proportion of main female characters, from 18 percent in 1992-93 study to 43 percent in the 1995-96 study.

-A massive decrease since the 1970s in the proportion of women whose main occupation was represented as that of housewife, only 3 percent

-A marked shift towards equality within the last two decades. 'Female and male characters are likely to be as intelligent, talented and resourceful- or stupid- as each other'.

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Billington et al (gender)

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Point out that masculine identity is linked for many men with being workers. Female identity is more often shaped by women's role as domestic labourers. Females are encouraged from a very early age to see nurturing as an essential part of being feminine.

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Miller and Hoffmann

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Identify two main explanations for the gender difference in religion:

1. Differential socialisation

2. Differential roles

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Burchill

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'Such women carry round with them a mobile prison'. (On hijabs).

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Sharpe (key study)

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Suggests young females are becoming more assertive in their rights and rank education and career above marriage and family as priorities in their lives. Did research on girls priorities in the 1970's and the 1990's.

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Connell

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1. Complicit masculinity

2. Subordinate masculinity

3. Marginalised masculinity