Social Psychology(Midterm1)

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Solomon Asch

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-Line Study, - to test conformity, we conform because we are social beings.

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***Festinger 1957***

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Cognitive dissonance, we hold many cognitions about the world and ourselves; when they clash, a discrepancy is evoked, resulting in a state of tension known as cognitive dissonance. (Believing something & acting a diff way.)
Eg. Having two conflicting beliefs(such as kindness vs. honesty(Bad Hair Cut)
Eg.Or wanting to diet but eating desert.
Original task. students given an incredibly boring task. $20 for lying that experiment was fun, others got $1 many of the $1 subject convinced themselves was fun because there is dissonance they change their attitude about the dullness of the task. $20 felt comfortable justified because they got a good reward. Having engaged in an attitude-discrepant act w.out sufficient justification, the participants reduced cognitive dissonance by changing their attitude
&Social Comparison Theory

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Loftus & Palmer

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-The interaction between language and memory
eg. (Hit Vs. Smash)

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Rosenthal & Jacobson

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Pygmalion in the classroom(Aka blooming kids study)
+The Pygmalion effect refers to the phenomenon in which the greater the expectation placed upon people (such as children, students, or employees) the better they perform.

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Stanley Milgram Study

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Behavioural studies of obedience(aka shock study)

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Muzafer Sherif

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Robbers cave study
+Realistic conflict theory is used to explain the conflict, negative prejudices, and discrimination that occur between groups of people who are in competition for the same resources

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Zimbardo

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Standford prison study

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Jane Elliot

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Blue-eyed/brown-eyed "classroom exercise"

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Latane & Darley

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bystander effect study

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What is Social Psych?

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The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context.
+It applies the scientific method of systematic observation, description, and measurement to the study of human condition.
+we are influenced by the imagined presence of other people
+Soc psych focus's on the individual

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Major causes of social behaviour?

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1)Sociocultural context
2)Biological factors
3)Real or perceived presence
4)Ecological variables
5)Subjective interpretations*
6)Cognitive processes

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Sociocultural context?

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group membership, cultural norms/values

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Biological factors

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inherited aspects of appearance, sensory & cognitive capacities, sociobiology, evolutionary social psychology

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Real or perceived presence

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actions& characteristics of others(eg. not washing hands when ppl aren't around)

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Ecological barriers

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heat, noise, pollution,crowding, weather

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***Subjective interpretations(Phenomenological approach)

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phenomenolgical approach to percieving behaviour, social constructivist view. (Eg. experiment w.ppl from south vs. north)

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Cognitive processes

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our thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, memories, inferences about others, social cognition.

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Social cognition

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the study of how people perceive, remember, & interpret information about themselves and others.

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Social neuroscience

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the study of the relationship between neural and social processes

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behavioural genetics

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a subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behaviour

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evolutionary psych

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a subfield of psych that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behaviour.

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culture

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a system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, & practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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cross-cultural research

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research designed to compare and contrast ppl of different cultures

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multicultural research

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research designed to examine racial & ethnic groups within cultures.

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The Self-Concept & what does it consist of?

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-Self Concept, is the sum total of an individual's beliefs about their own personal attributes(knowledge of who we are)
-self schemas, body of knowledge that influences what ppl notice, think about & remember about themselves
eg. schematic w. regards to their weight view their weight as a crucial part of their self-concept
Self-reference effect, tendency for ppl to remember info better if they relate it to themselves

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Sense of self?

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begins at 2yrs
chimps orangatangs and dolphins have a sense of self.

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Functions of the self:Self-Control?

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-The Self regulates our behaviour,choices,plans for the future.
-self-control in prefrontal cortex
-Self-regulatory model, self control is a limited resource.Research shows that it is physically taxing b.c it consumes glucose. Depletion can be reversed, enabling additional self-control, by the consumption of glucose & by self-affirmation
-Roy Baumer:Ego depletion theory,process that occurs when we have maxed out our self-control

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Where do self-concepts come from?

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1.Introspection
2.Perceptions of our own behaviour
3.The influences of other people
4. Autobiographical memories
5.& The cultures in which we live.

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Affective forecasting

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the process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events
eg. winning the lottery.

(Introspection)

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impact bias

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a phenomenon where ppl overestimate the strength and duration of their emotional reactions.(occurs in affective forecasting often)
-eg their candidate winning the election via happiness duration.

(Introspection)

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Bem's Self-Perception Theory

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the theory that when internal cues are difficult to interpret, ppl gain self-insight by observing their own behaviour.
Eg. eating sandwich really fast then noticing how hungry you were.

(Perceptions of our own behaviour)

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facial feedback hypothesis

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the hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion.
eg. Pencil in mouth?

(self-perceptions of our own behaviour)

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Over justification effect

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the tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors.
Eg. Child played w. markers, those w. expected reward enjoyed activity the least.

(self-perceptions of our own behaviour)
Lepper.

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Avoidance of the OJ effect

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1) Don't use reward when initial interest is high
2) Performance on contingent rewards not task-contingent
3)Don't use too strong of a reward
4)Keep reminding yourself & others that you are doing it b.c you love it.

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Social Comparison Theory

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The theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others.
Festinger

(Influences of other people)

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Two-Factor Theory of emotion

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the theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal
Eg.when someone is injected w. epinephrine the participant looks to the other participant to determine how they feel

(Influences of other people)

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Downward social comparisons

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-Compare ourselves to others that are similar to us, yet worse off to make ourselves feel better
Eg. Cancer patients, at least it's not lung cancer.

(Influences of other people)

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Upward social comparisons

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motivate ourselves to do better by comparing ourselves to someone similar yet more successful.

(Influences of other people)

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Impact of culture on the Self

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-Individualist cultures have an independent view of the self. Collectivist Cultures have an interdependent view of the self.

- Dialectism: An Eastern system of thought that accepts the existence of contradictory characteristics within a single person

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self-esteem

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an affective component of the self, consisting of a person's positive and negative self-evaluations

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Four ways to self-enhance

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Bask in reflected glory(BIRG),To increase self-esteem by associating w. others who are successful
Self-Handicapping, behaviours designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure
Implicit Egotism, A nonconscious form of self-enhancement. Eg. ppl rate the letters in their name more favorably than other letters in the alphabet(aka we unconsciously see out reflections of the self in our surroundings)
Self-serving cognitions, when ppl take credit for success & avoid failure. Eg. Do well on a test & take credit, do bad & blame instructor or the test questions.

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Self-awareness theory

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The theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behaviour(depending on how successful they view the reduction in self-discrepancy to be).

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Two types of self-focusing persons

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Private self-consciousness, A personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states.(you try to reduce discrepancies relative to your own standards)
Public Self-Consciousness, A personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others.(you try to match your behaviour to socially accepted norms)

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Describe our Need For Control

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Internal locus of control- belief that their actions control their lives
External locus of control- belief that things are out of their control(Feel helpless) coping mechanism

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Ironic Mental Processes

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Daniel Wegner(1994), sometimes the harder you try to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behaviour, the less likely you are to succeed.

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Self-presentation

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Strategies people use to shape what others think of them.

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The two types of Self-Presentation

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1)Strategic self-presentation, consists of our efforts to shape other' impressions in specific ways in order to gain influence, power, sympathy or approval. Eg. Political campaigns There are two strategic self-presentation goals: 1.Ingratiation, acts that are motivated by the desire to "get along" w. others and be liked. 2. Self-promotion, acts that are motivated by a desire to "get ahead" and gain respect for one's competence.
2) Self-Verification, the desire to have others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves.

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self-monitoring

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the tendency to change behaviour in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation
High self-monitors and low self-monitors.

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Lepper et., al 1973

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The overjustification effect occurs when an expected external incentive
Eg. recieving money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. The overall effect of offering a reward for a previously unrewarded activity is a shift to extrinsic motivation and the undermining of pre-existing intrinsic motivation.
(Once rewards are no longer offered, interest in the activity is lost; prior intrinsic motivation does not return, and extrinsic rewards must be continuously offered as motivation to sustain the activity)

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Dutton & Aron, 1974

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Misattribution of arousal- describes the process whereby people make a mistake in assuming what is causing them to feel aroused.
Eg. when actually experiencing physiological responses related to fear, people mislabel those responses as romantic arousal.

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Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968

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The Pygmalion effect, is the phenomenon whereby higher expectations lead to an increase in performance.(A leadership phenomenon)
Eg. As soon as the instructors believed that some soldiers had better abilities than others, they started managing those individuals differently. “Raising expectations triggers a leadership process that culminates in superior performance,”

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Gilovich & Savitsky, 1996

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The spotlight effect is the phenomenon in which people tend to believe they are noticed more than they really are.
Eg. Giving a speech and thinking everyone heard your mistake, it's not likely so. As you may be the center of your world, but you are not the center of everyone else's.

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Steele & Aronson, 1995

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Stereotype threat, is a situational predicament in which people are or feel themselves to be at risk of conforming to stereotypes about their social group.
Eg. African Americans believing that they are less intelligent than others thus lowering STAT scores due to anxiety. :(

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5 Eg.of techniques to reduce effects of dissonance

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1)change your attitude-"I don't really need to be on a diet"
2)Change your perception of the behaviour-"I hardly ate any icecream"
3)Add consonant cognitions-"Chocolate ice cream is very nutritious"
4)Minimize the importance of the conflict-"I don't care if I'm overweight--Life is short!"
5)Reduce perceived choice-"I didn't have a choice- the ice cream was served for a special occasion"

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Judgment & decision-making video

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Two reasons why ppl collapse into irrationality
1)influence of the crowd(pp cannot think individually or clearly anymore)
2)ppl are driven by primitive needs that demand immediate gratification(Freud)

Two approaches to the study of decision-making
1)Normative- asks the question of how we ought to make decisions, what is the nature of rational decision making.
2)Descriptive- asks how decisions are actually being made in practice

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Anchoring Effect

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How long is the Mississippi river?
500 miles vs. 5000 miles.
responses range around initial proposed length

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Group Think

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Preserve the harmony of the group. Don't create waves. Eg. Decision to invade Cuba because of what happened in the board room.

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5 common mistakes most negators make.
Max Bazerman

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1) Fail to consider judgments of otherside in negotiations
2) non-rationally escalate commitment to a previous course of action & escalate conflict.
3) tend to have a very limited frame in their perspective to conflict
4) tend to over confident that they will prevail in disputing situations
5)tend to view situations in a zero-sum manner aka I win you lose, even though that is not always the case.

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Steven Hassen-Constructing social reality video

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4 factors that contributing the self-fulfilling prophecies of the pygmalion effect(teachers)
1)warmer climate(nicer to them)
2) input factor, teach more material
3)response opportunity- call on them more often
4)Feedback factor, praised more& criticized more.

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Jigsaw classroom exercise

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kids become "experts" in one subject then change groups and teach to other kids.

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Robert Challdini (Persuasion)
Theory of influence & principles

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Principle of reciprocation- we are obligation to give back to others the form of behaviour they gave back to us.
Principle of scarcity-things that are limited in availability are more attractive to us.
Principle of Authority- much more likley to follow the lead of someone who is legitimized in the
Principle of commitment- once we've made a stand, we are much more likely to oblige
Principle of liking- ppl are much more willing to say yes to request to someone they know and like.
Principle of consensus- much more willing to say yes to a request if ppl around us are saying yes to a request.

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Curt Lewin 1939

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Principles Lewin helped establish:
1)Interactionist perspective: an emphasis on how both an individual's personality & environmental characteristics influence behaviour.
2)Social theories should be applied to important, practical issues.

experiment with kids learning, autocratic teaching= fascists, democratic=best outcome, freedom=chaos kids.

Takeaway= social situations can override individuals characteristics/personalities

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Sample short answer question #1)

Differences between Social Psychology and other disciplines

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-Social psych tends to focus on individuals, whereas sociology tends to focus on groups
-Soc psych focuses on more typical ways in which individuals think, not on disorders, unlike clinical psych.
-Soc psych, focus' on how social factors affect most individuals, regardless of their diff personalities unlike personality psych.
-Soc psych like Cognitive psych share an interest in mental processes, but soc psychologists focus on the relevance of these processes to social behaviour.

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Sample short answer question #2)

How has social psychology changed from the earliest study to today?

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Allport established social psych as a discipline, w. his book that focus' on the interaction of individuals & their social context & scientific method.
now more interested in cross-cultural and scientific methods.

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Sample short answer question #3

Describe one of the ways we try to protect our self-esteem and one of the ways we bolster our self-concept

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Self-Handicapping. Say you are taking a test but you don't have faith that you are going to pass, so you procrastinate and blame your bad grade on the procrastination rather than admitting your lack of ability. To improve your self-concept you use self-serving cognitions such as if you lose when gambling you blame it on a fluke, when you lose it's your skill.

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Sample short answer question #4

Your best friend decides to pursue her passion & make a career of photography. Identify some challenges she may face and how she can maintain her passion while trying to make a living.

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First ppl tend to overestimate their abilities as to what they think they will achieve compared to others. Next to be aware of the OJ effect because being rewarding for something you already enjoy decreases the amount of enjoyment you feel with that activity.

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What is social perception?

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The processes by which ppl come to understand one another.

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Judging books by covers

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We focus on cues to form an impression of someone. We make snap judgments based on physical appearances, such as, clothes, hairstyle, body piercings, posture, age etc.,
Eg. We tend to overgeneralize...Faces that are seen as trustworthy, if they look happy, an emotion that signals a person who is safe to approach, and untrustworthy if they look angry, an emotion that signals danger & to be avoided.

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Physical attractiveness

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-Attractive ppl are seen in a more (+) light than unattractive ppl.
-beauty is culturally dependent except symmetry which is global.

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Implicit Personality Theory

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-Describes the patterns and biases an individual uses when forming impressions based on a limited amount of initial information about an unfamiliar person.

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We form impressions by two types of shortcuts?

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1) Accessibility, easily brought to mind through past experience or b.c of priming.
2) Behavioural evidence, the more experience you have in a particular situation the more detail your behavioural script will contain Eg. First date script behaviour.

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What are scripts?& the two says they influence social perceptions?

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Situations: The scripts of life, ppl have preconceptions or "scripts" about certain types of situations. These scripts guide our interpretations of behaviour.
1)we sometimes see what we expect from a particular situation
2)ppl use what they know about socia situations to explain the causes of human behaviour.
+An action seems to offer more info about a person when it deviates from the norm. Eg. rowdy during a job interview, or polite at a keg party.

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Behavioural Evidence

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-Ppl derive meaning from behaviour by dividing it into discrete, meaningful units.
-nonverbal behaviours are often used to determine how others are feelings(Eg, body language)
-Ppl all over the world can identify the emotions, happiness, fear, sadness, surprise, anger, & disgust
-Ppl pay too much attention to the face rather than observing cues that are more revealing when trying to detect deception

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Mind Perception

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The process by which ppl attribute humanlike mental states to various animate & inanimate objects, including ppl.
Eg. describing the act of painting a house as "trying to make a house look new" rather than "applying brush strokes"

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Nonverbal behaviour

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behaviour that reveals a person's feelings w.out words-- through facial expressions, body language & vocal cues.

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Two problems as to why ppl can detect deception

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1) there is a mismatch between the behavioural cues that actually signal deception & those use by perceivers to detect deceptions
+There are 4 channels of communication: Words, the Face, the Body,& the Voice(The voice is the most telling, ppl tend or hesitate etc.,)
2) ppl assume that to spot a liar is to watch for signs of stress in their behaviour.

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Attribution theory?

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A group of theories that describe how ppl explain the causes of behaviour

-Fritz Heider(1958)

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Attribution

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-The process by which we explain ppls behavior.
-We pick up on nonverbal cues& use implicit personality theory schemas to fill in the blanks, but if we really want to know, we attribute the cause of their behaviour to Internal Factors(personal attribution)(ability, personality, mood, effort), or External Factors(situational attribution)(task, other ppl, luck, situation).
+We go to internal factors 1st b.c our focus is on them, then external 2nd. In collectivist cultures its the oppisite.

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Fundamental attribution error

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The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes & underestimate the impact of situations on other ppls behaviour. This error is sometimes called correspondence bias.

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Jones's correspondent Inference Theory

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-predicts that ppl try to infer from an action whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic.
+Ppl make inferences based on 3 factors:
1. Choice, behaviour the is freely chosen is more informative than coerced behaviour.
2. Expectedness, an action says more when it is departed from the norm.
3.Intended consequences/effects,acts that produce multiple desirable outcomes say less, than outcomes that have few good outcomes Eg. Job.

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Covariation Principle

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A principle of attribution theory holding that ppl attribute behaviour to factors that are present when a behaviour occurs & absent when it does not. 3 kinds of covariation info are particuarly useful: 1. consensus, distinctiveness, & consistency.

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Kelly's Covariation Theory

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-ppl make attributions by using the covariation principle.
1. Consensus: how do diff ppl react to the same stimulus.(Eg. Do other ppl like the film too)
2. Consistency: does the person behave in the same way to the same stimuli over time in diff circumstances.(Eg. Like the movie on diff occasion)
3.Distinctiveness: does one behave in the same way to diff. stimuli (Eg. Does the movie-goer reaction this way to other films too)
+Low Consenus & Distinctiveness. & high consistency= personal attribution
+hight consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency=stimulus attribution(good movie)

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Attribution Biases&cognitive heuristics

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is a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors.

Cognitive heuristics: info-processing rules of thumb that enable us to think in ways that are quick and easy but frequently lead to error.

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Availability Heuristic(CH)

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-a tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.
+ it can lead us astray in 2 ways:
1. it gives rise to the False Consensus Effect, a tendency for ppl to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attitudes, & behaviours.
2. social perceptions are influenced more by one vivid life story than by hard statistical facts.

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Base-Rate Fallacy(CH)

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- The fact that ppl are relatively insensitive to numerical base rates, or probabilities & are influenced instead by graphic, dramatic events such ppl being pulled from the wreckage of a plane crash on the media.

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Counterfactual thinking(CH)

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the tendency to imagine alternate outcomes that might have occurred by did not.
Eg. I should have asked her out.

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Actor-observer effect

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The tendency to make personal attributions for the behaviour of others, and situational attributions for ourselves.
Eg. prisioners said situational, counselors said personal characteristics

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How does culture influence attribution?

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-Western cultures(whose members tend to believe that persons are autonomous, motivated by internal forces, and responsible for their own actions) & Non-Western "collectivist cultures(whose members take a more holistic view that emphasizes the relationship between persons and their surroundings.

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Two motivational Biases

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-Our attributions for the behaviour of others are often biased by our own self-esteem motives
-Belief in a Just world, belief that ppl get what they deserve, and we deserve what we get.

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Impression formation

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The process of integrating info about a person to form a coherent impression.

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Information Integration Theory
Anderson (1981)

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impressions formed of others are based on a combination, or integration of 1. personal dispositions of the perceiver, and 2. a weighted average, of the target person's characteristics

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Priming effects

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the tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily & influence the interpretation of new info.

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Implicit Personality Theory

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A network of assumptions ppl make about the relationships among traits and behaviours

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Central Traits
(Solomon Ash 1946)

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was the first to discover Central Traits, meaning that they imply the presence of certain other traits & exert powerful influence on final impressions. Eg. Warm & Cold.

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Primacy Effect

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The tendency for info presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than info presented later.

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Need for closure

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The desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impressions

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Confirmation Bias

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The tendency to seek, interpret, & create info that verifies existing beliefs.

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Belief perseverance

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tendency to maintain initial beliefs even if they have been discredited.

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The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

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The process by which one's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.
This is the product of a 3 step process:
1.Perceiver forms expectation of target person
2.Perceiver behaves accordingly
3.Target adjusts to perceiver's actions

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Confirmatory hypothesis testing

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once perceivers have beliefs about someone, the seek further info in ways that confirm those beliefs.

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Racism

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Prejudice & discrimination based on a person's racial background, or institutional & cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another

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Sexism

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Prejudice & discrimination based on a person's gender, or institutional & cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another

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Stereotype

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A belief or association that links a whole group of ppl w. certain traits or characteristics

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Prejudice

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Negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups.

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Discrimination

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Negative behaviour directed against persons b.c of their membership in a group

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group

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two or more persons perceived as related b.c of their interactions w. each other over time, membership in the same category, or common fate.

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ingroups

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groups. w/ which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging & identity.

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outgroups

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groups w. which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging & identity

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Modern Racism

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A form of racism that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, & easy to rationalize

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Implicit Racism

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Racism that operates unconsciously & unintentionally

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Implicit Association Test (IAT)

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A covert measure of unconscious attitudes, it is derived from the speed at which ppl respond to pairings of concepts, such as black or white w. good or bad.

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Superordinate goal

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A shared goal that an be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or groups.

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Realistic Conflict Theory

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The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources

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Relative Deprivation

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Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others

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ingroup favouritism

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the tendency to discriminate in favour of ingroups over outgroups

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Social Identity Theory

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Theory that ppl favour ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self-esteem

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Social Dominance Orientation

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A desire to see one's ingroups as dominant over other groups & a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups.

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Social Categorization

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The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes

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outgroup homogeneity effect

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the tendency to assume that there is a greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of in groups

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Illusory correlation

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An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated

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social role theory

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the theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women

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* stereotype threat

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the experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative sterotypes about ones group

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*contact hypothesis

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theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions

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Jigsaw classroom

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A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts

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Stereotype content model

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a model proposing that the relative status & competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence & warmth

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Subliminal Presentation

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a method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that ppl do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them.

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Attitude

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Relatively stable set of beliefs that predispose our reactions to objects, ppl & events

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Implicit Attitudes

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An attitude--such as prejudice-- that one is not aware of having

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Two types of Self-report Measures

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1. Attitude scale-A multiple item questionnaire designed to measure a person's attitude toward some object
2.Bogus pipeline-A fake lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions.

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*LaPiere's study (1934)

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-1st to notice that attitudes&behaviour don't always align.
-study done during a time when there was a degree of accepted racism

-LaPiere is caucasian & was traveling w. & w.out an Asian couple.
-Attitudes were racist & behaviour was not
+perhaps b.c of power of the situation(needs to put beliefs in check.
+Perhaps only moderate relationship b.c of specific attitudes,or HSM's(LSM's have more obvious correlation between behaviour&attitude)

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Theory of planned behaviour*

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The theory that attitudes towards behaviour combine w. subjective norms & perceived control to influence a person's actions.
1)Subjective norms, our belief about what others think we should do.
2)Attitudes, strong or weak attitudes contribute to the intention of behavioural outcome
3)Perceived behavioural control, the extent which one believes they can perform the behaviour
+Eg. birth control.
Summary:attitudes toward a specific behaviour combine w. subjective norms&perceived control to influence a person's intentions. These intentions,in turn, guide but do not completely determine behaviour. This theory places a link between attitudes & behaviour w.in a broader context.

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Attitudes & expenditures

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we tend to value an item/experience more if it costs us something.
Eg. SPCA-purchase pets

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Persuasion*

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The process by which attitudes are changed

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Duel-processed model of persuasion

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The model assumes that we do not always process communications the same way
Central route to persuasion-when ppl think about the strength and quality of the contents of a message.
3 steps: Reception, acceptance & elaboration
Perpherial route to persuasion-when ppl do not think critically about the contents of a message but focus instead on other cues.

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Route selection

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Petty and Cacioppo's(1986)
The process that is engaged depends on 2 factors from the recipients
1. Ability
2. Motivation
The outcome depends on 3 factors
1. A source(who)
2.Message(says what & in what context)
3.audience(to whom)

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The source(who) of persuasion

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There are two key attributes that make communicators more effective than others
1. Credibility,(competent & trustworthy)
2. Likeability,(similar & physically attractive)

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The Message

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-On the peripheral route, lengthy msg's are persuasive. Central, length works only if the added info doesn't dilute the msg.
-Msg's that are moderately discrepant from an audience's attitudes will inspire change, but highly discrepant msg's will be scrutinized & rejected.
-High fear msg's,&(+) emotion facilitate attitude change
-subliminal msg's do not produce significant or lasting changes in attitude.

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Sleeper effect

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a delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source.
+ppl often forget the source but not the message, so the effects of source credibility dissipate over time.

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Norman miller & Donald Campbell
Effects of presentation order and timing on persuasion

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If two messages a presented simultaneously and a decision is required immediately there is no effect. If two messages are presented then a decision is required a week later for both there is no effect. If two messages are presented simultaneously and one is required an answer immediately and one not. Then primacy and recency effects occur.

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Need for Cognition(NC)

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A personality variable that distinguishes ppl on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities.
+Ppl high in NC like to work hard on problems
(like info-oriented appeals).Ppl low in NC like cues related to peripheral route.(Eg. attractiveness of speaker)
-HSM's are more influenced by msgs's that promote social images. Eg. Imagery ads
-LSM's are more influenced by the information-orientated appeals.

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The Audience

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-Ppl who are high in NC are persuaded more by the strength of the arguments
-HSM are influenced more by appeals to social images
-To be persuasive a msg should appeal to the cultural values of its audience
-Forewarning increases resistance to persuasion

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The impact of a msg is influenced by two factors regarding the audience

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1. The recipient personality
2. His or her expectations

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Forewarning & Resistance to persuasion

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Inoculation Hypothesis The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument.
psychological reactance the theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves & perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive.

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Insufficient justification

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A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behaviour without receiving a large reward.

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insufficient deterrence

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A condition in which ppl refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mind punishment is threatened.

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Strategies for resisting persuasion

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Most common=Attitude bolstering"I reassure myself of facts that support the validity of my belief." Social Validation="I also rely on other w. the same viewpoint to be there for me"
least common= Source Derogation,"I look for faults in the person presenting the challenging belief."

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Role-Playing

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the way ppl act can influence how they feel, as behaviour can determine attitudes
Eg. Stanford prison study

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Ways to reduce cognitive dissonance

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1. Change your attitude" I don't really need to be on a diet.
2. Change your perception of the behaviour "I hardly ate any icecream"
3. Add consonant cognitions "Chocolate icecream is very nutritious"
4. Minimize the importance of the conflict"I don't care if I'm overweight--Life is short!"
5. Reduce perceived choice"I had no choice, the icecream was served for a special occasion"

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Arson & Mills(1959)

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Participants were asked to either to not do an embarrassment task before the experiment or to do a moderate to severly embarrassing task. The more effort the participants put into the embarrassing portion rated the experiment most favourable b.c they adjusted their attitudes to justify their suffering.

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3 alternative theories to self-persuasion, challenging cognitive dissonance theory*****

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1. Daryl Bem's (1956) Self-Perception Theory: that we infer how we feel by observing ourselves & the circumstances of our own behaviour
2. Impression-Management Theory- what matters is not a motive to be consistent but a motive to appear consistent.
3. Self-esteem theories(Aronson)-Acts that arouse dissonance do so b.c. they threaten the self concept, making the person feel bad & motivating a change in attitude or future behaviour.

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Cognitive Dissonance theory: A new look*

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according to the new look of cognitive dissonance theory 4 conditions must be met for dissonance to be aroused:
1. An act w. unwanted consequences
2.a feeling of personal responsibility
3. arousal or discomfort
4. attribution to the arousal to the attitude-discrepancy act.