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68 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Define 'Group'
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Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us" (shared goals, interdependence)
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Why do people join groups (Four things)?
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- to satisfy psychological or social needs - to give or receive affection, to have a sense of belonging. Real tangible health outcomes come from a sense of belonging.
- achieve goals - provide knowledge - fulfill security needs |
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How do groups function? (4 things)
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1. roles
2. status 3. norms 4. cohesiveness |
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roles
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- often link to self-concept
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status
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- Status within groups affords a person perks, etc. Higher level members of group tend to receive these benefits in various ways. Good members are granted a higher status in the group, will work hard to achieve status.
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norms
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- essentially the "rules of the game." May never be explicitly expressed, tell member how they are supposed to behave. Departure from norms has social costs.
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cohesiveness
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- Cohesive groups have greater influence on the behavior of other members. If we like other members of group, that in itself will provide a more close-knit tight group. We begin to like members of our groups for the primary reason that they are members of our group.
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What influences cohesiveness? (3 things)
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- members' status
- effort to join (cognitive dissonance) - group size |
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Define 'social group'
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- interdependence, interaction
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Define 'non-social groups'
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- collections of individuals who find themselves in the same place at the same time; don't interact, don't have a continuing relationship.
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Zajonc et al. Study 1
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- study with cockroaches. Built contraption to see if roaches' behavior influenced by peers. Simple maze with audience boxes.
- will the roach run faster alone or with other roaches watching? - Roaches ran faster in the presence of other roaches. Finding: performance facilitated by the presence of others (with bugs, birds, and humans) IF the task is simple. |
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Zajonc et al. Study 2
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- created more complex maze. Started box off on the right. Set up the experiment so some would run alone, others would run in the presence of others.
Finding: Roaches performed worse in the presence of other roaches. Animals and people perform worse if the task is complex. |
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How did Zajonc explain his experiments? (2 points)
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1. presence of others increases arousal
2. when aroused, dominant responses are facilitated |
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Pool Study
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- experimenters determined expert, novice pool players
- then, in a group of four, overtly watched them play - novice players did slightly worse when they were watched, and experienced players did slightly better when they were watched |
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Why are we aroused by the presence of others? (3 points)
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1. increased alertness, vigilance
2. evaluation apprehension - concern that others are watching, evaluating (some cases support this, others don't) 3. presence creates distraction |
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Are the findings of increased/decreased productivity affected by introversion/extraversion?
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- yes. But overall patterns hold. Extraverts who like external activity at a certain point they will perform worse. But degree of distraction might be higher for those who are extraverted
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Define 'social loafing'
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- tendency to do worse on simple tasks when performing with others, when individual performance cannot be evaluated
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Jackson & Williams Study:
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- participants worked at simple or complex mazes
- instructed either that individual performance would be evaluated, or that team performance evaluated only. - when individual performances were evaluated, they performed well on easy mazes, less well on difficult mazes. But given relaxation that followed by team evaluation increased the performance on difficult mazes. |
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What two factors make it more likely that you are a social loafer?
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1. male
2. from individualist (western) culture |
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What are the two questions to ask to predict the effects of mere presence?
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1. can individual efforts be evaluated?
2. is the task considered easy or complex? |
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Does brainstorming work?
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It actually does not because people are too concerned with looking bad
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Define 'deindividuation'
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- loosening of normal social constraints when people are in large or anonymous groups.
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Alberta Hockey Study:
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- set out to look at male hockey fans - what factors predisposed them to join a fight in the stands?
- most important factors - how many other male friends they had with them |
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Zombardo Study 1969
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- had female college students deliver painful electric shocks to another student.
- 1/2 were selected to wear big hoods and lab coats. 1/2 wore no hoods, no lab coats, but nametags with their own name on it. - names are important to prevent deindividualization - Fs administered shock to an actor, could shock her as much as they wanted. Women hiding behind lab coats shocked for twice as long. |
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Aggressive Behaviour Kids Study:
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- kids signed up to play in a soccer tournament. Claimed that only had uniforms for 1/2 of the teams. Had raters rate how aggressively they played.
- even colour of uniform we wear can matter |
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Team Uniform Study
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- team uniforms in hockey and football. But the records over 17 years, teams that wore back consistently rank at top of leagues in terms of penalties.
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Why does deindividuation lead to impulsive, aggressive behavior? (3 points)
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- less accountability in presence of others
- reduced self-awareness in presence of others - it is hard to focus inwardly and to focus outwardly as well |
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Room Study
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- bring people into room. Will never see people again, sometimes it is dark and sometimes it is light. People in room for one hour.
- Light - people sat, made polite conversation - dark - 90% of participants touched someone else in room. 50% of people in dark room hugged someone else in the hour. In the light, 0% of people touched anyone. - very few people said they disliked the experience. Particularly those in dark room wanted to do it again |
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Social Decision Schemas
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1. Group chooses position held initially by majority of members
2. Truth-wins rules - group accepts choice seen as correct 3. First-shift rule - group adopts a decision that reflects first change of opinion by a member |
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Two Types of Social Influence
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1. Normative Influence
2. Informational Influence |
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Normative Influence
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- based on our desire to be accepted or liked (to fit in)
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Informational Influence (3 points)
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- based on our desire to be right, have accurate info, make good decisions
- may depend on type of task/decision - may depend on time pressure |
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Kelly Study
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- Groups rank-ordered causes of death and dream topics
- some worked under time limit - on factual list (causes of death), and with more time, Ps used informational influences - otherwise, relied on normative decisions (social comparision) |
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Define 'group polarization'
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- group decisions are more extreme than average individual decisions
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Verkly study (effectiveness of brainstorming)
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- got groups of students together to work on problem
- put into groups of 5, each group tasked with a particular problem. - some of the teams instructed to brainstorm new ideas. They included standard brainstorming instructions. Others instructed to provide debate, control group got no instructions Findings: debaters came up with the most creative ideas |
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7 symptoms of groupthink
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1. illusion of vulnerability
2. belief in morality of group 3. stereotyped view out outsiders 4. self-censorship 5. pressure on dissenters to conform 6. illusion of unanimity 7. mindguards |
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Describe differences in gender cognitive differences:
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Fs tend to be stronger in verbal skills
Ms tend to be stronger in math, special skills |
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Describe differences in gender personality
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Ms tend to be more assertive, dominant
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Describe differences in gender social interactions
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- Ms tend to be independent, self-serving
- Fs tend to be interdependent, concerned to maintain relationships |
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What are the four findings behind gender differences?
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1. they don't apply universally
2. they represent trend or averages 3. may reflect innate predispositions 4. may reflect upbringing, socialization, or both |
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How do gender differences affect conversational style?
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- M's speech tends to be more direct
- F's speech tends to be more indirect; greater concern for concordance - Males are far more likely to interrupt on average |
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How do gender differences affect psychological disorders?
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- major depressive disorder is more prevalent among Fs
- no differences in bipolar disorder |
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When do children understand that there is a consistency to their gender?
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- between the ages of 4-7
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Videotape Study
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- Videotapes display 9-yr-old babies.
- knowing names of infants affects judgements of size, attractiveness. Can look at babies to see if they are attractive. Videotaped 4 babies, gave them male and female names, and female named babies were viewed to be smaller, softer, nicer. - But the names were scrambled! - female names were associated with stereotypes |
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Gender schema theory
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Each of us has a generalized readiness to organize information on how to behave and how to interact, and what to expect from males and females on basis of cultural definitions, schemas, etc.
- Children rewarded for engaging in gender appropriate actions or play, other times discouraged or ridiculed if behavior determined to be gender inappropriate. |
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How do traditional gender roles influence behavior?
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- in workplace
- in home (division of labour) - expectations, motivation - despite fact that males and females equal in intelligence and females do better than males at school, males estimate their intelligence to be greater than females. |
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Good et al. (2010)
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- 9th, 10th grads studied chemistry test
- manipulated illustrations: all M, all F, or both - Girls who saw all F scientists did best on test, better than boys - boys who saw all scientists also did better |
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What are the differences in aggression between males and females?
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- Ms tend to be more overtly aggressive
- our society is more tolerant of aggression in Ms |
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Female aggression study
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- females expect greater disapproval if they behave aggressively. They feel more guilt and concern for harm.
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Helping patterns across genders
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Ms are more likely to offer assistance (very consistent)
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Conformity differences between males and females
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- even though the stereotype is that Fs are more likely to yield or conform, most studies find no difference.
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Gender differences on personal entitlement
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- Ms tend to believe that they deserve more
- Study: Fs may believe that they must do more to warrant rewards - differences in entitlement may reflect targets of comparison |
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Describe connection between social dominance and testosterone
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- testosterone associated with tendency to dominate or control
- higher testosterone levels in those who choose dominant occupations - M athletes' testosterone levels increase prior to competition - same thing happens to M sports fans |
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define norms
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Norms - my perceptions of what other people think I should do
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"Culture of honor"
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- higher levels of violence in southern US
- but not indiscriminate - more liberal laws regarding defense of self, property - higher liberal laws attributed to greater number of argument-related (honour) killings - people in southern US respond to insults much more aggressively than adults in other areas of US - this kind of violent killing is appropriate but only when used to protect oneself or one's family, defend one's honour |
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Where do cultural influences/norms originate?
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1. not from individual peers, but from parental group
2. and from our peers |
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Where do individualist/collectivist cultures stand on conformity?
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- IC - independence, creativity
- CC - compliance, respect for tradition |
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Where do individualist/collectivist cultures stand on social loafing?
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- individualist cultures are more prone to social loafing
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Social Loafing Study
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- compared 9th graders from Florida, Taiwan
- Noise-making task: louder alone or in group? - US kids were 88% as loud in group - Taiwanese kids were 108% as loud in group - less significant difference when they tested girls than boys |
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Where do individualist/collectivist cultures stand on fundamental attribution error?
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- individualist cultures are more likely to make this error
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Fundamental Attribution Error - individualist
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- compared attributions made by Americans and by Hinus (from India)
- Amercans Ps made more internal, dispositional attributions - Hindus more likely to consider external contexts |
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Miller Helping Study
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- compared beliefs about social responsibility of Hindus and Americans
- Ps read stories of people in need - Varied degree of need, relationships - For minor need of stranger, 88% of Hindus said they would respond, but 41% of Americans said they would respond. |
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Brazilian Helping Study
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- compared students from Illinois and Brazil
- asked about helping - both groups said they would help - Brazilian students said they'd feel good about it - Americans said they'd help, but not with enthusiasm |
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Differences in advertising, self (3)
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Individualist ads appeal to independence, self-reliance, self-improvement
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Differences in advertising, collectivist (3)
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Collectivist ads appeal to family, to concern with others, to interdependence
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E. Hall - proxemics
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- study of personal space
- 4 "zones" of interaction: (1) zone of intimacy (contact-18 inch); (2) zone of Personal Distance (4 ft to 12 ft); (3) zone of Social Distance (4 ft to 12 ft); (4) zone of Public Distance (12 ft+) |
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How do people differ in their needs for personal space? (5 points)
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- those from cultures nearer the equator prefer less space
- Adults prefer more space than children do - Males prefer more space than females do - Those with hi SE get closer than those with low SE - Violent inmates need 3x the space of non-violent inmates |
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Levine et al. Study
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Measured 3 indicators of social time
- accuracy of clocks in urban banks - walking speed of pedestrians - time for postal clerk to sell a stamp - found very high correlation across measures; Japanese fastest in all measures than Americans, English, Italians, Taiwanese, Indonesians |