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68 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Define 'Group'
Two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as "us" (shared goals, interdependence)
Why do people join groups (Four things)?
- to satisfy psychological or social needs - to give or receive affection, to have a sense of belonging. Real tangible health outcomes come from a sense of belonging.
- achieve goals
- provide knowledge
- fulfill security needs
How do groups function? (4 things)
1. roles
2. status
3. norms
4. cohesiveness
roles
- often link to self-concept
status
- Status within groups affords a person perks, etc. Higher level members of group tend to receive these benefits in various ways. Good members are granted a higher status in the group, will work hard to achieve status.
norms
- essentially the "rules of the game." May never be explicitly expressed, tell member how they are supposed to behave. Departure from norms has social costs.
cohesiveness
- Cohesive groups have greater influence on the behavior of other members. If we like other members of group, that in itself will provide a more close-knit tight group. We begin to like members of our groups for the primary reason that they are members of our group.
What influences cohesiveness? (3 things)
- members' status
- effort to join (cognitive dissonance)
- group size
Define 'social group'
- interdependence, interaction
Define 'non-social groups'
- collections of individuals who find themselves in the same place at the same time; don't interact, don't have a continuing relationship.
Zajonc et al. Study 1
- study with cockroaches. Built contraption to see if roaches' behavior influenced by peers. Simple maze with audience boxes.
- will the roach run faster alone or with other roaches watching?
- Roaches ran faster in the presence of other roaches.

Finding: performance facilitated by the presence of others (with bugs, birds, and humans) IF the task is simple.
Zajonc et al. Study 2
- created more complex maze. Started box off on the right. Set up the experiment so some would run alone, others would run in the presence of others.

Finding: Roaches performed worse in the presence of other roaches. Animals and people perform worse if the task is complex.
How did Zajonc explain his experiments? (2 points)
1. presence of others increases arousal
2. when aroused, dominant responses are facilitated
Pool Study
- experimenters determined expert, novice pool players
- then, in a group of four, overtly watched them play
- novice players did slightly worse when they were watched, and experienced players did slightly better when they were watched
Why are we aroused by the presence of others? (3 points)
1. increased alertness, vigilance
2. evaluation apprehension - concern that others are watching, evaluating (some cases support this, others don't)
3. presence creates distraction
Are the findings of increased/decreased productivity affected by introversion/extraversion?
- yes. But overall patterns hold. Extraverts who like external activity at a certain point they will perform worse. But degree of distraction might be higher for those who are extraverted
Define 'social loafing'
- tendency to do worse on simple tasks when performing with others, when individual performance cannot be evaluated
Jackson & Williams Study:
- participants worked at simple or complex mazes
- instructed either that individual performance would be evaluated, or that team performance evaluated only.
- when individual performances were evaluated, they performed well on easy mazes, less well on difficult mazes. But given relaxation that followed by team evaluation increased the performance on difficult mazes.
What two factors make it more likely that you are a social loafer?
1. male
2. from individualist (western) culture
What are the two questions to ask to predict the effects of mere presence?
1. can individual efforts be evaluated?
2. is the task considered easy or complex?
Does brainstorming work?
It actually does not because people are too concerned with looking bad
Define 'deindividuation'
- loosening of normal social constraints when people are in large or anonymous groups.
Alberta Hockey Study:
- set out to look at male hockey fans - what factors predisposed them to join a fight in the stands?
- most important factors - how many other male friends they had with them
Zombardo Study 1969
- had female college students deliver painful electric shocks to another student.
- 1/2 were selected to wear big hoods and lab coats. 1/2 wore no hoods, no lab coats, but nametags with their own name on it.
- names are important to prevent deindividualization
- Fs administered shock to an actor, could shock her as much as they wanted. Women hiding behind lab coats shocked for twice as long.
Aggressive Behaviour Kids Study:
- kids signed up to play in a soccer tournament. Claimed that only had uniforms for 1/2 of the teams. Had raters rate how aggressively they played.
- even colour of uniform we wear can matter
Team Uniform Study
- team uniforms in hockey and football. But the records over 17 years, teams that wore back consistently rank at top of leagues in terms of penalties.
Why does deindividuation lead to impulsive, aggressive behavior? (3 points)
- less accountability in presence of others
- reduced self-awareness in presence of others
- it is hard to focus inwardly and to focus outwardly as well
Room Study
- bring people into room. Will never see people again, sometimes it is dark and sometimes it is light. People in room for one hour.
- Light - people sat, made polite conversation
- dark - 90% of participants touched someone else in room. 50% of people in dark room hugged someone else in the hour. In the light, 0% of people touched anyone.
- very few people said they disliked the experience. Particularly those in dark room wanted to do it again
Social Decision Schemas
1. Group chooses position held initially by majority of members
2. Truth-wins rules - group accepts choice seen as correct
3. First-shift rule - group adopts a decision that reflects first change of opinion by a member
Two Types of Social Influence
1. Normative Influence
2. Informational Influence
Normative Influence
- based on our desire to be accepted or liked (to fit in)
Informational Influence (3 points)
- based on our desire to be right, have accurate info, make good decisions
- may depend on type of task/decision
- may depend on time pressure
Kelly Study
- Groups rank-ordered causes of death and dream topics
- some worked under time limit
- on factual list (causes of death), and with more time, Ps used informational influences
- otherwise, relied on normative decisions (social comparision)
Define 'group polarization'
- group decisions are more extreme than average individual decisions
Verkly study (effectiveness of brainstorming)
- got groups of students together to work on problem
- put into groups of 5, each group tasked with a particular problem.
- some of the teams instructed to brainstorm new ideas. They included standard brainstorming instructions. Others instructed to provide debate, control group got no instructions
Findings: debaters came up with the most creative ideas
7 symptoms of groupthink
1. illusion of vulnerability
2. belief in morality of group
3. stereotyped view out outsiders
4. self-censorship
5. pressure on dissenters to conform
6. illusion of unanimity
7. mindguards
Describe differences in gender cognitive differences:
Fs tend to be stronger in verbal skills
Ms tend to be stronger in math, special skills
Describe differences in gender personality
Ms tend to be more assertive, dominant
Describe differences in gender social interactions
- Ms tend to be independent, self-serving
- Fs tend to be interdependent, concerned to maintain relationships
What are the four findings behind gender differences?
1. they don't apply universally
2. they represent trend or averages
3. may reflect innate predispositions
4. may reflect upbringing, socialization, or both
How do gender differences affect conversational style?
- M's speech tends to be more direct
- F's speech tends to be more indirect; greater concern for concordance
- Males are far more likely to interrupt on average
How do gender differences affect psychological disorders?
- major depressive disorder is more prevalent among Fs
- no differences in bipolar disorder
When do children understand that there is a consistency to their gender?
- between the ages of 4-7
Videotape Study
- Videotapes display 9-yr-old babies.
- knowing names of infants affects judgements of size, attractiveness. Can look at babies to see if they are attractive. Videotaped 4 babies, gave them male and female names, and female named babies were viewed to be smaller, softer, nicer.
- But the names were scrambled!
- female names were associated with stereotypes
Gender schema theory
Each of us has a generalized readiness to organize information on how to behave and how to interact, and what to expect from males and females on basis of cultural definitions, schemas, etc.
- Children rewarded for engaging in gender appropriate actions or play, other times discouraged or ridiculed if behavior determined to be gender inappropriate.
How do traditional gender roles influence behavior?
- in workplace
- in home (division of labour)
- expectations, motivation
- despite fact that males and females equal in intelligence and females do better than males at school, males estimate their intelligence to be greater than females.
Good et al. (2010)
- 9th, 10th grads studied chemistry test
- manipulated illustrations: all M, all F, or both
- Girls who saw all F scientists did best on test, better than boys
- boys who saw all scientists also did better
What are the differences in aggression between males and females?
- Ms tend to be more overtly aggressive
- our society is more tolerant of aggression in Ms
Female aggression study
- females expect greater disapproval if they behave aggressively. They feel more guilt and concern for harm.
Helping patterns across genders
Ms are more likely to offer assistance (very consistent)
Conformity differences between males and females
- even though the stereotype is that Fs are more likely to yield or conform, most studies find no difference.
Gender differences on personal entitlement
- Ms tend to believe that they deserve more
- Study: Fs may believe that they must do more to warrant rewards
- differences in entitlement may reflect targets of comparison
Describe connection between social dominance and testosterone
- testosterone associated with tendency to dominate or control
- higher testosterone levels in those who choose dominant occupations
- M athletes' testosterone levels increase prior to competition
- same thing happens to M sports fans
define norms
Norms - my perceptions of what other people think I should do
"Culture of honor"
- higher levels of violence in southern US
- but not indiscriminate
- more liberal laws regarding defense of self, property
- higher liberal laws attributed to greater number of argument-related (honour) killings
- people in southern US respond to insults much more aggressively than adults in other areas of US
- this kind of violent killing is appropriate but only when used to protect oneself or one's family, defend one's honour
Where do cultural influences/norms originate?
1. not from individual peers, but from parental group
2. and from our peers
Where do individualist/collectivist cultures stand on conformity?
- IC - independence, creativity
- CC - compliance, respect for tradition
Where do individualist/collectivist cultures stand on social loafing?
- individualist cultures are more prone to social loafing
Social Loafing Study
- compared 9th graders from Florida, Taiwan
- Noise-making task: louder alone or in group?
- US kids were 88% as loud in group
- Taiwanese kids were 108% as loud in group
- less significant difference when they tested girls than boys
Where do individualist/collectivist cultures stand on fundamental attribution error?
- individualist cultures are more likely to make this error
Fundamental Attribution Error - individualist
- compared attributions made by Americans and by Hinus (from India)
- Amercans Ps made more internal, dispositional attributions
- Hindus more likely to consider external contexts
Miller Helping Study
- compared beliefs about social responsibility of Hindus and Americans
- Ps read stories of people in need
- Varied degree of need, relationships
- For minor need of stranger, 88% of Hindus said they would respond, but 41% of Americans said they would respond.
Brazilian Helping Study
- compared students from Illinois and Brazil
- asked about helping
- both groups said they would help
- Brazilian students said they'd feel good about it
- Americans said they'd help, but not with enthusiasm
Differences in advertising, self (3)
Individualist ads appeal to independence, self-reliance, self-improvement
Differences in advertising, collectivist (3)
Collectivist ads appeal to family, to concern with others, to interdependence
E. Hall - proxemics
- study of personal space
- 4 "zones" of interaction: (1) zone of intimacy (contact-18 inch); (2) zone of Personal Distance (4 ft to 12 ft); (3) zone of Social Distance (4 ft to 12 ft); (4) zone of Public Distance (12 ft+)
How do people differ in their needs for personal space? (5 points)
- those from cultures nearer the equator prefer less space
- Adults prefer more space than children do
- Males prefer more space than females do
- Those with hi SE get closer than those with low SE
- Violent inmates need 3x the space of non-violent inmates
Levine et al. Study
Measured 3 indicators of social time
- accuracy of clocks in urban banks
- walking speed of pedestrians
- time for postal clerk to sell a stamp
- found very high correlation across measures; Japanese fastest in all measures than Americans, English, Italians, Taiwanese, Indonesians