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81 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Actor-Observer Effect
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-part of casual attribution
-overestimate the effects of dispositional factors when making attributions about an actor's behavior -to overestimate the effects of situational factors when making self-attributions |
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Attitude Inoculation
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-a method of reducing effectiveness of a persuasive message, based on a medical model
-involves giving the recipient of the message arguments against his/her own position and weak counterarguments -particularly effective method for reducing persuasibility -you're exposing them to small, weaker arguments against their position; by doing this, ppl will become immune to full-blown arguments to change their position |
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Dimensions of Attribution
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-casual attributions are often described in terms of three dimensions
**internal/external (dispositional/situational) **stable/unstable **specific/global |
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Autokinetic Effect
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-used by Sherif for Conformity to group norms
-stationary point of light in a darkened room -If an observer who would otherwise say the light is moving one foot overhears another observer say the light is moving one yard then the first observer will report that the light moved one yard. |
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Barnum Effect
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-also known as Forer effect
-predicts people tend to accept vague or general descriptions as accurate descriptions of themselves (like horoscope) -attributed to confirmation bias:ppl tend to pay attention only to information that confirms or supports their current beliefs |
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Confirmation Bias
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=predicts that people tend to pay attention only to information that confirms or supports their current beliefs
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French-Raven 6 Bases of Social Power
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Charismatic Real Estate Lawyers Rule
C=Coercive, R=Referent, E=Expert, L=Legitimate, I=Informational, R=Reward -a person's ability to influence someone else is often the result of two or more bases of power -Supervisors and mental health consultants are most successful when they combine REFERENT and EXPERT power |
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Social Influence can have ONE of THREE effects on behavior (cross-referenced with bases of social power)
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-Compliance: person changes behavior to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment (reward and coercive power)
-Identification: person changes behavior to be liked by or identified with another person (referent power) -Internalization: person changes behavior because she actually privately accepts the beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of another person (expert, legitimate, and informational) |
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Bystander Apathy
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the tendency of people not to intervene in emergency situations when others are present...the greater the number of bystanders, the greater the bystander apathy
-attributed to 3 factors: **pluralistic ignorance: assistance is not necessary bc others are not offering assistance **evaluation apprehension: bystanders don't help because they fear social disapproval **diffusion of responsibility: they assume others will offer help |
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Willingness to Intervene (vs. Bystander Apathy)
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Bystander intervention increases when...
**emergency is non-ambiguous **bystander feels a sense of responsibility for the victim or feels confident to help **someone else has already intervened **the emergency takes place in a rural or other uncrowded environment |
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Catharsis Hypothesis
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-predicts that an act of aggression reduces an individual's arousal level which then decreases the likelihood that he will act aggressively again in the near future
-research has not been supportive |
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Central Traits
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-research of impression formation
-certain traits influence impressions more than others -eg warm and cold are associated with a large number of other characteristics and therefore carry more weight than other attributes |
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Characteristics of the communication
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several characteristics of the communication increase the likelihood it will induce attitude change
-level of discrepancy: the positions of the recipient and the communication have moderate discrepancy -order of presentation: ppl tend to remember first communication over time if immediately followed by 2nd communication, or if period of time btwn communications remember most recent -whether the message is intentionally delivered or is overheard - |
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Characteristics of the Communicator
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-Credibility as key contributor to attitude change...over time, more attitude change, less credible communicator needed
--->trustworthiness contributes to credibility, more trustworthy if arguing against own best interests than if they have something to gain |
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Characteristics of the Audience
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Certain recipients are more susceptible than others to being more easily perrsuaded
--lower levels of intelligence --those with either high or low self-esteem --those in their teens or early 20's |
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Zeigarnik Effect
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-the tendency to remember interrupted and unfinished tasks better than completed ones (because uncompleted tasks create "psychic tension")
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Threat of Retaliation
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-it reduces aggressiveness, especially when it comes from a person with high status or power
-however when coupled with provocation, the likelihood of aggression increases |
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Theory of Planned Behavior
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-predicts that attitudes are accurate predictors when the attitude measure assesses all three components of the behavioral intention
**the person's attitude toward the engaging behavior **what the other person believes other people think he should do **the person's perceived behavioral control |
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Symbolic (Modern) Racism
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-symbolic racists believe that African-Americans and other minorities violate such traditional American values as individualism, self-reliance, and work ethic.
-they also deny prejudices and 1) attribute social and economic problems of minority group members to internal factors and 2) oppose programs designed to assist those who have been the target of discrimination |
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Superordinate Goals
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-goals that can be achieved only when individuals or different groups work together cooperatively; they have been found useful for reducing intergroup conflict
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Social Judgment Theory
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3 categories of judgment by which we evaluate persuasive messages
---note:the more ego-involved, the larger our latitude of rejection--- **lattitude of acceptance (all positions on the topic are acceptable, mostly likely to be persuaded) **lattitude of non-commitment **lattitude of rejection |
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Social Learning Theory
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-Bandura, based on child studies with model and bobo doll
-aggressive behavior is a result of observational learning (imitation) -"a child is more likely to imitate an aggressive model when the model" is powerful, successful, likes, and/or familiar -" " is of the same sex as the child -" " is rewarded for acting aggressively -with reward and even no consequence, more likely to have an incentive to model behavior |
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Effects of Media Violence
(connected to social learning theory) |
-Majority of studies confirm that viewing violence does increase aggressiveness
-Also evidence that media violence affects attitudes as well as behavior -Frequent viewing of media violence has been linked to a tendency to judge aggressive retaliation more positively; a tendency to overestimate the likelihood that one will be a victim of violence; and greater support for harsher prison sentences to help reduce crime |
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Effects of Pornography
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-Exposure to mild erotica may actually reduce aggressiveness
-exposure to explicit pornography or pornography with violent themes tends to increase aggressive behaviors -also evidence that exposure to violent pornography promotes a greater acceptance of violence against women |
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Sexual Prejudice
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-negative attitudes based on whatever sexual orientation
-sexual prejudice among heterosexuals is associated with a number of factors: **authoritarianism **traditional sex-role attitudes **old age **lower levels of education **fundamentalist religious views **conservative political views *higher levels of other types of prejudice -hetero males tend to have more negative views than do hetero women, especially toward gay men |
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Contact Hypothesis
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-prejudice may be reduced through contact btwn members of the majority and minority groups as long as the following conditions are met:
**group members must have equal status and power **members of the groups should be provided with opportunities that disconfirm their negative stereotypes **Contact must be sanctioned by law, custom, and other institutional supports **contact should require intergroup cooperation to achieve mutual (superordinate) goals |
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Psychological Reactance
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-tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others usually by doing the opposite of what is desired or expected
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Robber's Cave Study (Sherif)
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-demonstrated that the most effective way to reduce intergroup hostility is having the members of the groups cooperate to achieve a mutual (superordinate) goal.
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Schachters and Singer's Epinephrine Studies
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-Research on the perception of emotion
-Showed there are no physiological differences btwn emotions -Showed the perception of emotion depends on the combination of physiological arousal and a cognitive label for that arousal -Showed that in ambiguous situations people look at cues in the external environment to identify their internal states |
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Illusory Correlation
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-An example of how schema's influence impressions
-the belief that 2 characteristics, events, or other variables are related when they actually are not, has been interpretated as the result of a schema that links the 2 variables -if u meet a politician...immediately assume she is dishonest...probably due to ur schema for politicians |
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Self-monitoring
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-need for and ability to manage the impression that others form of them
**high self-monitors: -->concerned about "public self" -->good @ determining what behaviors, attitudes, and values are socially desirable or expected in a situation and at concealing their true feelings and opinions **low self-monitors -->guided primarily by their own beliefs and values -->attempt to alter the situation to match their "private self" |
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Self-Perception Theory
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-individuals make attributions about their own attitudes and behaviors on the basis of observations of their behaviors and other external cues
-this theory is supported by Schacter and SDinger's epinephrine studies |
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Self-serving Bias
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-the tendency to blame external factors for our failures and take credit for our successes
-appears to be relatively universal, there are exceptions -->people who are depressed often inhibit learned helplessness, that one cannot control negative life events which leads to apathy and depression -->associated features are internal rather than external, global rather than specific, stable rather than transient |
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Self-Verification Theory
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**ppl prefer information that is consistent with one's self-evaluation
-people with positive self-concepts prefer to interact with others who confirm those positive self-views and vice-versa -in a marriage study, found that partners with a negative self-view reported higher levels of commitment when their partners confirmed their negative self-perceptions |
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Social Comparison Theory
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Individuals use other people as sources of comparison to evaluate their own attitudes and behaviors
**comparisons most often involve people who are similar *dissimilar comparisons are sometimes made especially when evaluating an undesirable behaviors --when judging our own level of anger we're likely to compare ourselves to others we consider to be even more angry |
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Social Exchange Theory
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-decision to stay or leave relationship depends on costs/rewards of relationship
-more predictive of relationships with strangers, acquaintances, and business associates than of relationships with family and close friends |
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Confirmation Bias
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the tendency to seek or pay attention to information that confirms one's hypothesis or current beliefs and to ignore disconfirming information
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Contact Hypothesis
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proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of the majority and minority groups as long as the following conditions are met:
--members have equal status --provided opportunities that disconfirm their negative stereotypes |
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
(defined) |
Festinger's theory of attitude change that proposes that when people have two incompatible cognitions, inconsistencies produce discomfort (dissonance) which motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviors; for others, they may add consonant information or downplay the importance of the inconsistency
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
(Research Findings) |
-the more that ppl suffer for something, the more positively they evaluate it
(example of women who worked hard to get into what turned to be a "dull" group like the group more than women who had mild initiation) - |
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
(Research Findings) |
-Investigation of forced compliance
-participants in a dull "study" -asked to recruit others -paid $1 or $20 to tell others it was interesting and fun -later, those paid $20 described it as boring; those paid $1 described it as enjoyable -$1 didn't have as much justification for lying because they weren't paid very much, so they experienced dissonance, and resolved it by changing their attitude: "no, seriously, it was enjoyable" |
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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-Predicts that persuasion can occur in one of two ways
-->central route: requires more thought and cognitive elaboration; listener finds the message interesting, important or personally relevant and/or is in a slightly negative mood; the extent of attitude change depends on QUALITY of argument -->peripheral route: listener finds the message uninteresting or uninvolving and/or is in a positive mood; attitude change requires less mental effort and depends on QUANTITY of arguments and the presence of persuasive cues such as the attractiveness and status of the communicator -->Central Route **produces change that is more enduring and most resistant to future attempts at persuasion |
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Deindividuation Model
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-Zimbardo
-people are more likely to act aggressively or in other antisocial ways when they believe they can act anonymously -anonymity reduces the effects of usual inhibitory mechanisms like guilt or fear |
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Crowding
(Negative Effects) |
-impacts of environment on individual and group behavior
-high residential density has been linked to ***physical and mental health problems ***poor academic performance ***juveline delinq ***higher mortality rate |
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Crowding
(Positive Effects) |
-People actually prefer high density at football games, rock concerts and similar events, tend to laugh more in high density
-tend to like being around others when in an arousing, attention-grabbing situation |
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Crowding
(Research on factors that contribute to the effects of crowding) |
-crowd enhances positive experiences but makes unpleasant situations even more unpleasant
-violations of personal space can cause anxiety, irritability, and increased aggression -Americans typically desire more personal space -greater personal space is required by people low in self-esteem or high in authoritarianism -Men require more personal space, tend to be more sensitive to and more stressed by high density and react more aggressively than women in crowded situations |
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Emotion-In-Relationship model
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-a model that proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates emotion in response to unexpected events that disrupt ongoing sequences of behavior
-implications**intense emotion is most likely to be elicited when one partner in the relationship disrupts everyday routines and interactions (like having an affair) -also predicts that emotions are generally more intense in initial stages when other's behaviors are still surprising and unexpected as oppose later on when they are more predictable |
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Equity Theory
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-perceptions of equity (fairness) in a relationship are more important than absolute magnitude of costs and rewards
-more likely to stay in relationship when reward/cost ratio is proportional to reward/cost of the other person -***2 types of inequity --->underbenefited when reward/cost is less that other person --->overbenefitted when reward/cost is greater |
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Fundamental Attribution Bias
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-Attribution error
--when an observer tends to overestimate dispositional causes and underestimate situational causes when making attributions about behavior --**for example we're more likely to attribute a stranger's rude behavior to his unpleasant personality than to the possibility that he's having a bad day **this bias is uded to explain the belief in a just world in which people tend to view victims as cause of their own misfortune |
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Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
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-Theory that aggression is motivated by frustration
-simple causal relationship btwn frustration and aggression not always found -revised theory claims frustration creates anger arousal but the ACTUAL EXPRESSION of aggression requires both arousal AND presence of aggressive cues |
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Gain-Loss Effect
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-we generally like others who like us and vice-versa but attraction is actually maximized when the person's evaluation of us is initially negative but then becomes positive
-least attracted to individuals who show decreasing liking for us |
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Gender Differences in Affiliation
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-females
**spend more time engaged in conversation **more likely to talk to ppl of the same sex **may affiliate more than males do in public places Male friendships...often develop out of shared activities Female friendships...depend more verbal communication and self-disclosure |
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Jigsaw method
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-assignments completed by team with each member assigned different piece of the project
-not only good at reducing stereotyping but ENHANCES cooperation, self-esteem, and attitudes -in academic achievement, benefits tend to be more pronounced for minority students but Anglo students do as well or a little better than in traditional classroom |
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Minority Influence
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-member or members holding minority position must (in order to influence other members)
**maintain a consistent position **remain clear, firm, and confident without appearing rigid or dogmatic -people will comply with majority for normative reasons (to be liked, to avoid punishment) but comply with minority for informational reasons (because the minority has caused them to re-evaluate their beliefs) *****the result of minority influence is likely to be a real change in attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors (while majority influence only results in compliance) |
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Overjustification Hypothesis
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getting a reward for doing something that was intrinsically rewarding (it was fun to do all on its own) was now seen as totally different because they were getting rewarded for it.
-predicts that when an external reward is given to a person for performing an intrinsically rewarding activity, person's intrinsic interest in activity decreases -behavior linked to external reward and when reward stops, behavior stops: extrinsic motivation negatively impacts intrinsic motivation; Should a reward be present, there is a risk of losing the enjoyment of the activity for itself. |
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Misery loves Miserable Company
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-people like to affiliate with those in similar (bad) circumstances;
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Motivational Conflicts
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-approach/approach: attracted to two equally desirable goals (having to chose btwn 2 desirable jobs)
-avoidance/avoidance: two undesirable alternatives (choosing btwn being laid off or accepting lower-paid position) -approach/avoidance: when goal has both positive and negative aspects (job increases salary but more stress);****conflict is difficult to resolve because as we move closer to goal (accepting the job), the avoidance force becomes stronger, but as we move away from the goal, the approach force increases |
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Social Facilitation
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-found that observers have a significant effect on an individual’s performance, by INCREASING performance on SIMPLE, well-learned tasks and decreasing performance of novel, difficult tasks.
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Group Polarization
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tendency of people to make decisions that are more extreme when they are in a group, as opposed to a decision made alone or independently
-attitudes such as racial and sexual prejudice tend to be reduced (for already low-prejudice individuals) and inflated (for already high-prejudice individuals) after group discussion. |
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Group Tasks: Divisible
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*Can be broken up into subtasks
* Cooking example * Groups tend to perform well when tasks are of this nature |
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Group Tasks: Unitary
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* Division of Labor is impossible
Examples: - jury decisions - tug of war - a capella concert |
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Group Tasks: Additive
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* When all group members perform the same job and group performance is a sum (ADD TOGETHER) of individual performance
Examples: - relay race - class average on the test - barn raising |
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Group Tasks: Conjuctive
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* Group performance is disproportionately dependent on the weakest member (WORST PERFORMING)
* One bad performer can bring the whole group down |
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Group Tasks: Disjunctive
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* Group performance is disproportionately dependent on the strongest member (ONLY ONE PERSON)
* One good performer can bring the whole group up |
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Social Loafing
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phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone.
It is also more likely to occur when TASKS are SIMPLE and BORING. Thus, to avoid social loafing an employer should insure that each employee's job is challenging and that they receive recognition for their individual efforts |
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Mood-state dependent retrieval
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The retrieval of information is more effective when the emotional state at the time of retrieval is similar to the emotional state at the time of encoding.
Thus, the probability of remembering an event can be enhanced by evoking the emotional state experienced during its initial processing. These two phenomena, the mood congruity effect and mood-state dependent retrieval, are similar to the context effects which have been traditionally observed in memory research |
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Prisoner's Dilemma
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people tend to compete from the beginning
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Centralized Communication Network
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-all communication goes through one person
-most effective for an easy task -leaders prefer this |
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Altruism
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-history of responsibility for welfare of others is more important factor in the development of altruism
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Effects of Pornography
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Exposure to EXPLICIT porn or porn with VIOLENT themes increase aggressive behavior
--promotes a greater acceptance of violence against women --less likely to recommend more severe prison sentences for convicted rapists |
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Schematas
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People develop interconnected cognitive networks from previous social experience. They are constantly comparing current situation to previous ones. They pay more attention to data which confirms or supports these schemata.
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Heuristics
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"Rules of Thumb", what comes to mind immediately, almost judging a person based on stereotype
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Social Facilitation
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people to do better on simple tasks when in the presence of other people.
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When people make estimates of levels of conformity they:
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Underestimate their own level of conformity and overestimate the level of others.
People are more conforming around unfamiliar tasks and less conforming around Familiar tasks. |
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Depressed individuals are likely to attribute their failures to
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SIG
Stable, Internal, Global factors and successes TEMP external causes |
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Person's with high achievement motivation are most likely to attribute their failures to
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InU
Unstable, Internal |
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Spacing
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Americans require 5.5 feet of personal space on the average
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Bandura - Observational learning
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A child is more likely to be aggressive when the doll represents someone powerful, well liked or familiar, or when the child is rewarded for aggression.
Television violence can increase aggression and the effects can be long term. In one study the amount of television violence viewed at age 10 successfully predicted the amount of violence at age 30. Frequent viewing of television violence is likely to relate to aggressive retaliation being viewed more favorably. |
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Personality descriptions used by men and women social worker conform to social ste-reotypes.
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Male and female therapists both used the same adjectives to describe male patients. Both used different and less positive to describe women. Females overall tend to be de-scribed less positively than men
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Group Tasks: Compensatory
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AVERAGE of the contributions of all people represents the group product
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Zeigarnik Effect
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when people manage to start something they're more inclined to finish it (good for procrastination)
Is mostly likely to occur under conditions of low stress. |
