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126 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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What does the “Life Space” consist of? What theory does it come from?
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the person and his/her psychological environment in the immediate present. The totality of all possible factors that influence a person… it includes the needs, goals, and external events that affect the person’s bx. comes from Lewin's Field Theory
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Lewin’s major theoretical contribution & what it basically asserts
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Field Theory; explains the factors (forces) that influence a situation - either driving movement toward a goal or blocking movement toward a goal
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The 3 conflicts postulated by Field Theory
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Approach-Approach Conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict, Approach-Avoidance Conflict
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How is an Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict resolved?
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if it is possible to “leave the field,” avoid making a choice, or move away from both goals, the conflict with be so resolved (eg if you have to choose between staying in a hated job or being unemployed and broke, you may change fields by finding another job). If this is not possible, then an equilibrium will eventually be reached at which point the forces pushing the person away from each goal are of equal strength (eg, not quitting the job, but missing as much work as possible)
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what will you do if you hate your job but you don't want to be unemployed?
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How did the rats in Miller’s experiment re: approach-avoidance conflicts resolve the conflict of the food vs. shock?
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first ran to food. Then after being shocked while eating the food, on the next trial they ran to the food more slowly and stopped short of the food. That was the point of equal force between the approach goal and the avoid goal.
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Which is steeper, the Approach or Avoidance gradient, and what does this mean?
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Avoidance gradient is steeper. This means that as as you approach the goal, the avoidance force becomes stronger and you will eventually stop short of the goal – like the rats who ran towards food but always stopped short of it because the avoidance gradient was steeper.
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Summarize Bem’s Self Concept Theory
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when internal cues are weak, we infer our feelings and thoughts by observing our behavior and the situation.
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What theory was tested in Schacter’s “epinephrine” study, and what other theory did the results support?
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Schachter's "Two Factor" Theory (aka Cognition Arousal Theory of Emotions) & the results were supportive of Bem’s Self Concept Theory
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Summarize the Overjustification Hypothesis
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when you reward someone for engaging in a pleasurable activity, their interest in the activity is undermined. Related to self-perception because when rewarded for the activity, they conclude that the reason they engaged in it in the first place was to be rewarded (extrinsic motivation).
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Summarize Social Comparison Theory, and whose was it?
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when confidence in one’s own abilities or opinions is weak, we evaluate ourselves via comparison to similar others. Festinger (1954)
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Summarize Self-Verification Theory
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people seek validation of their self-concept, even when that self-concept is negative. They choose to interact with those who confirm their self-concept/avoid those who don’t. More motivated to attend to, remember, and believe self-verifying info.
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Are people more satisfied with and intimate in relationships that confirm their self-concept, or relationships that provide positive feedback?
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those that confirm their self-concept (Self-Verification Theory)
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Summarize the Fundamental Attribution Error
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the tendency to underestimate the impact of situations and overestimate the role of personal factors when explaining others’ behavior
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What’s the actor-observer effect?
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the opposite of the fundamental attribution error: when trying to understand or explain our own behavior, we tend to look more to personal factors rather than situational factors to explain our behavior, particularly when explaining our successes (the self-serving bias)
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False-consensus bias
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tendency to overestimate the degree to which others conform to our own opinions, attitudes, behavior
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Central traits
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Asch postulated that these characteristics (e.g., warmth) imply more about a person than others.
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Primacy Effect
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tendency to place greater emphasis on first impressions that on info learned later
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Trait negativity Bias
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tendency to weigh negative info more heavily than positive info in evaluating others
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Self-fulfilling Prophecy
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occurs when our expectations about another person affect that person’s behavior
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What kind of personality type is theorized to be more likely to be prejudiced?
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Authoritarian Personality
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Social Identity Theory
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prejudice is a means of maintaining or self-esteem through favoritism of “ingroups” and derogation of “outgroups”
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What’s the Zeigarnik Effect & what personal variable interacts with it?
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uncompleted tasks are remembered better than completed ones because interrupting someone in the middle of a task puts them into disequilibrium and tension, and they want to alleviate this tension by completing it (which requires them to remember it). Ego is the variable that impacts the strength of the Z-effect.
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Summarize Self-Serving Bias
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we are more likely to attribute successes to our own personal factors and more likely to attribute failures to situational factors.
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Confirmation Bias
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tendency to seek, interpret, and create info that verifies our existing beliefs
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What is the two-factor theory, who’s is it, and what experiment demonstrated it?
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Two-factor theory explains the experience of emotion: a person must first experience physiological arousal, then must make a cognitive interpretation of the arousal. Schachter developed it. It was Schachter & Singer’s “Ephinephrine” study that demonstrated it.
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What’s a downward comparison, what theory is it related to, and what are 3 characteristics that make one more likely to engage in it?
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downward comparisons are social comparisons with others who are inferior, less successful, or less fortunate. It’s related to Social Comparison Theory (Festinger) and research suggests that it’s more likely 1) when folks feel threatened, 2) have low self-esteem, or 3) are self-evaluating negativistic characteristics.
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For what groups does the self-serving bias not apply?
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Depressed & low self-esteem
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According to Weiner's Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion, what are the 5 attributional categories for success/failure?
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1) internal-external, 2) stable-unstable, 3) controllable-uncontrollable, 4) intentional-unintentional, 5) global-specific. (Weiner, 1986)
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CISSI ("Kissy")
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According to Weiner’s Attributional Theory of Motivation & Emotion, accomplishments that are attributed to __________ and ___________ causes are more likely to produce the greatest pride
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intentional & specific cause(s).
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According to Weiner’s Attributional Theory of Motivation & Emotion, negative behaviors that are attributed to __________ and ___________ are more likely to produce the greatest shame, guilt, and blame
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intentional & specific cause(s).
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Describe people with an INTERNAL LOC
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1) they see themselves as causing the things that happen to them, and they are more 2) achievement oriented, 3) self-confident, 4) less anxious, 5) less suspicious, and 6) less dogmatic
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People with Internal LOC A(x3)SCenD
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Describe people with an EXTERNAL LOC
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2) they see fate, luck or other people as causing what happens to them, 2) they are less achievement oriented, have less confidence, and are more likely to be anxious, suspicious, and dogmatic
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Who is most associated with the concept of LOC?
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Rotter (1966)
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According to Lerner (1980), when making attributions about injustice, people tend to __________
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blame the victim (Just World Hypothesis – people get what they deserve and deserve what they get)
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According to Sue & Sue, it’s not just the LOC that matters, but _______ as well
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Locus of Responsibility
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What are Sue & Sue’s four possible worldviews regarding attributions about one’s standing – and what do each of them mean?
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1) Internal LOC & LOR: you are responsible for your successes & failures as they are the result of your efforts and abilities. This is dominant view in the US. 2) Internal LOC, External LOR: you can shape your own life, but there are external barriers like racism to contend with. 3) External LOC, Internal LOR: you don’t have any control over your own life, and you only have yourself to blame b/c there aren’t any external or systemic barriers. 4) External LOC & LOR: you have no control over your own life (learned helplessness) and it’s the system’s fault.
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In terms of impression formation, what 2 experimental methods can be employed to reduce the primacy effect?
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1) warn subjects not to jump to conclusions, or 2) have subjects engage in an irrelevant activity between presentation of two conflicting descriptions of a person. In either case, more recently presented info is likely to have greater effect.
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What theory did Rosenhan’s “pseudopatient” study demonstrate?
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confirmation bias
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What did the “Pygmalion in the Classroom” study demonstrate and who ran the study?
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self-fulfilling prophecy… by Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968)
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Describe the results of Rosenthal & Jacobson’s (1968) classroom study
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children who were allegedly “on the verge of an intellectual growth spurt” improved their IQ by up to 30 pts within 8 months
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What is the “Pygmalion effect?”
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same as self-fulfilling prophecy – a person’s expectations about the bx of others actually leading to fulfillment of those expectations.
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What’s the difference between prejudice, stereotype, and discrimination?
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1) Prejudice = feelings, 2) stereotypes = cognitions, 3) discrimination = behavior
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What gender role stereotypes are "true" & how are they simultaneously not true?
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research suggests that men do tend to be more aggressive, competitive and task-oriented, while women tend to be more sensitive, cooperative, and people-focused. BUT, stereotypes about these characteristics are much stronger than actual differences.
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What was the main thesis of Allport’s “the nature of prejudice”?
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1) prejudice is a multiply determined phenomenon, 2) as all the different influences interact, prejudice becomes strongly internalized, and 3) interventions (e.g., laws) won’t have immediate effects on attitudes.
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What 6 characteristics are associated with the “Authoritarian Personality?”
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1) more conventional, 2) rigid in their thinking, 3) sexually inhibited, 4) submissive to authority, 5) intolerant of different others. 6) As children, more likely to have domineering parents who used harsh discipline.
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What’s the F scale & what does a high score mean?
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The Fascism Scale – Adorno’s measure of Authoritarian Personality. Higher scores relate to higher prejudice.
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What was Robber’s Cave all about?
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(Sherif, 1961) the development and mitigation of intergroup hostility. It demonstrated that intergroup hostility could be mitigated by the introduction of superordinate goals (the camp truck breaks down and both groups have to work together to pull it up a hill)
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What’s a “jigsaw classroom” and what’s were the 3 main resulting characteristics of students in these classrooms?
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a jigsaw classroom is a racially mixed classroom in which the material is divided into subtopics and each student is responsible for learning one subtopic and teaching it to the rest of the students. Children in these classrooms were 1) less prejudice, 2) liked school more, and 3) had higher self esteem.
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What are the 4 main conditions that must be met to make intergroup contact result in decreased prejudice, according to Allport’s Contact Hypothesis?
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1) groups must be of equal status, 2) there must be personal contact b/w groups, 3) the situation must provide opportunity for mutual cooperative activity toward a joint goal, 4) social norms of the situation must favor & encourage cooperation, equality, and intergroup contact.
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Has school desegregation resulted in decreased prejudice in white students?
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no, probably because the 4 required conditions of the contact hypothesis weren’t met [1) groups must be of equal status, 2) there must be personal contact b/w groups, 3) the situation must provide opportunity for mutual cooperative activity toward a joint goal, 4) social norms of the situation must favor & encourage cooperation, equality, and intergroup contact.]
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In experimental situations, when Ss anticipate a painful experience in the experiment, do they prefer to sit in a waiting room with others awaiting the same fate, or to wait alone? What’s this phenomenon known as?
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They prefer to sit with others awaiting the same fate. Known as the “misery loves miserable company” phenomenon
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What two variables have been shown to impact the “misery loves miserable company” phenomenon?
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1) birth order. First borns/only-children have a stronger affiliation need than later borns. 2) when survival is at stake (having surgery), people prefer waiting with folks who have successfully survived the surgery instead of others waiting for it.
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What 7 variables influence interpersonal attractiveness?
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SCCRAPS: 1) Similarity, 2) Complementarity, 3) Costs & Benefits, 4) Reciprocity, 5) Attractiveness, 6) Proximity, 7) Self-Disclosure
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What type of self-disclosure increases interpersonal attractiveness?
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SD that matches the other’s level of SD, moderate and gradual, and SD that’s reciprocal
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When is the impact of reciprocity on interpersonal attractiveness the most powerful?
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when the other person first reacts to us negatively but later warms up to us.
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According to the Emotions-In-Relationships model (Berscheid, 1998), when are strong emotions most likely to arise in relationships and why?
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in the beginning, because we haven’t formed expectations yet and therefore there are more opportunities for the other’s behavior to surprise us, resulting in strong (neg or pos) emotions. Over time, expectations get formed and as long as things continue to generally meet those expectations, reactions don’t tend to be very strong, hence longer-term partners feelings “taken for granted.”
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What variable most greatly impacts “bystander apathy?”
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number of bystanders (higher numbers = greater bystander apathy)
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What 7 factors are hypothesized to contribute to bystander apathy?
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1) Diffusion of responsibility, 2) social influence (getting cues from others as to proper behavior), 3) evaluation apprehension (fear that one’s response will be embarrassing or lead to social disapproval), 4) confusion of responsibility (fear that one will be blamed for the misfortune by folks who show up later), 5) degree of victim distress, 5) lack of ambiguity of the situation, 6) whether someone else has already intervened (makes it more likely that you will) 7) urban vs rural environment (more likely to intervene in rural environ)
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Between the US, Philippines, Mexico, and Kenya children from which countries scored highest → lowest on prosocial behavior?
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Filipino, Kenyan, Mexican, USA
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What 4 variables impact the development of pro-social bx?
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1) number of siblings, 2) older siblings being responsible for care of younger siblings, 3) children responsible for helping adults with household chores, 4) higher levels of attachment
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What type of game is the Prisoner’s Dilemma, and what does it demonstrate?
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it’s a non-zero sum game meaning that there doesn’t have to be a winner and a loser. The Prisoner’s Dilemma has been used to demonstrate that even when it’s in both players’ best interest to cooperate, most people compete anyway.
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What’s the difference b/w hostile and instrumental aggression?
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hostile = venting of negative emotions with no clear objective, instrumental = a means to an end.
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How has the old original Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis been expanded more recently?
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it’s viewed as too simplistic and has been expanded to incorporate other variables, e.g., prior learning, attributions about one’s frustration (e.g., if you believe your frustration is accidental & unintentional), characterological factors. Frustration is no longer understood as the necessary and sufficient cause of aggression.
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Catharsis Theory
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the idea that engaging in or witnessing an aggressive act can reduce a person’s inclination to engage in other aggressive acts. Has NOT been supported by research
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What’s the rx b/w aggression & temp?
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high temp are positively correlated with crime rates, particularly violent crime rates.
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What is deindividuation and what does it influence?
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a sense of anonymity, when an individual is deindividuated, s/he is more likely to display uncharacteristic violence/aggression. In a crowd or in other circumstances that divert attn away from internal cues (e.g., loud music) deindividuated folks react more to the immediate situation and aren’t as sensitive to the long-term consequences of their behavior.
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What experiment is Zimbaro famous for? What did it demonstrate?
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The “Prison Study” demonstrating that assigned institutional roles (prisoners and guards) can have powerful effects on aggressive behavior. The study was cut short after 6 days because guards had become so cruel and abusive, and prisoners had become passive and submissive.
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What was Sherif’s study on conformity? What type of conformity was he studying?
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had Ss judge how far a light moved in a dark room (when in reality it didn’t move) first alone and then in groups of 3. Although individual estimates varied widely, then in groups estimates converged. This was about INFORMATIONAL conformity
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Informational vs. normative conformity
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the former is employed by individuals who use others’ bx as a source of accurate info in order to avoid making a mistake, particularly when the individual is unsure of their accuracy, this was the subject of Sherif’s light in a dark room study. Normative is about “going along with” the group norm simply due to group pressure. This was the subject of Asch’s line experiment.
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What 5(+) variables influence group conformity?
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1) group size (3-4+ grp members), 2) when group is unanimous, 3) in ambiguous situations, 4) in highly cohesive grps, 5) in persons w low SE, low IQ, high need for approval, and high authoritarianism)
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What are the 4 conditions under which a minority can best influence a majority?
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1) the minority’s position is consistent, 2) they’re not perceived as rigid, biased, or psychologically imbalanced, 3) they don’t waver, and 4) minority isn’t a member of a familiar social group arguing in favor of that group’s interests.
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What are idiosyncracy credits and what can they be “used” to do?
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The credits that one builds up by first conforming to a group in order to establish credentials as a “competent insider.” Once credits are accumulated, one is in a better position to become leader of the group or successfully challenge the majority opinion
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Define Psychological Reactance (Brehm, 1966)
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the phenomenon resulting when people feel their freedom is threatened to act in the opposite direction of the attempted influence. That is, conformity and compliance are less likely in situations where one feels one’s freedom to choose is being threatened.
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Low-Balling
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getting you to agree to something and once an agreement is made, increasing the size of the request (e.g., the hidden costs). For example, advertising a plane ticket for $100 until you get to the 10th step of purchasing when $50 in add’l fees are revealed.
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What are the 6 Bases of Social Power?
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RRELIC → Reward, Referent, Expert, Legitimate, Informational, Coercive
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What combination of the 6 different bases of social power tend to most effective and long-term?
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referent + expert
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What is the phenomenon of social facilitation?
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presence of others tends to enhance performance of simple tasks and impairs performance on complex tasks. Another more precise way to say this is that presence of others tends to enhance the dominant response.
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Social Loafing
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the phenomenon of individual’s performance/output declining when they are working together with others in a group.
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What variables tend to impact social loafing & in which direction?
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if the task(s) assigned to the group are boring (+), simple (+), simple (+), require the same effort by everyone (+), when the individuals believe their contributions are identifiable (-), uniquely necessary (-), or if the task is regarded as personally relevant (-), challenging (-), or highly attractive (-).
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In general, are groups or individuals considered better at decision making?
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groups b/c greater range of ideas and info
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What increases the chances of group polarization/risky shift?
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1) the more persuasive arguments in favor of a position, 2) if group members know each others’ positions b/f discussion begins, 3) if members consider the group to be an “ingroup” where they’re similar to each other
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What 7 factors are associated with Groupthink?
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1) group cohesiveness, 2) similar backgrounds, 3) group isolation, 4) strong leader, 5) lack of systematic decision making procedures, 6) presence of a stressful situation, 7) newly formed group
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What’s the difference b/w group polarization/risky shift & groupthink?
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the former predicts that individuals who start off with similar views end up with a more extreme position after group discussion. The latter describes a way of thinking in cohesive groups in which group concurrence becomes more important than good decision making.
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Additive Task
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each members’ contribution counts (e.g., applause in an audience)
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Conjunctive Task
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the weakest member’s contribution determines its performance (weakest link of a mountain climbing team)
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Disjunctive Task
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the strongest member’s contribution determines performance (marketing agency brainstorming group)
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Compensatory Task
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performance depends on the average group member’s contribution (e.g., a group presentation in which all group members are given the same grade based on the overall performance of the group)
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What’s the difference b/w mediation and arbitration?
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in mediation you don’t have the authority to impose an agreement, your role is just to facilitate the disputants coming to terms they can agree on. An arbitrator has the authority to strongly recommend or dictate a final answer.
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What are the 3 ingredients to successful mediation?
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1) modifying the social or physical structure of the conflict (e.g., meeting in a neutral place, imposing time limits), 2) modifying the issue structure by helping disputants clarify the issues & identify alternative solutions, 3) increase motivation to reach agreement by fostering trust, diffusing emotions, and showing that an agreement is possible.
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Under what conditions are attitudes good predictors of bx?
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1) when the attitude measures are specific, 2) when attitudes are well-informed, 3) when the attitude is consistent with social norms, 4) when the info on which the attitude is based was obtained via experience, 5) when the attitude is readily accessible to awareness, 6) when the person can actually follow through on the intention to carry out the behavior consistent with their attitude.
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Social Distance Scale
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a measure of attitudes towards different social groups with items denoting degrees of acceptability of social contact, e.g., “Are you willing to work with Jewish people?” (1925)
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Semantic Differential Scale
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rate an object in terms of it’s favorableness (good-bad), power (weak-strong), or activity (active-passive). Osgood, 1957
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Bogus Pipeline
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Ss are wired to a fake apparatus that supposedly records their true feelings. They’re more likely to tell the truth under this condition.
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What was the original (Festinger & Carlsmith) study on cognitive dissonance?
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subjects were told to perform a boring task which they did for an hour. Afterwards, half were paid $1, the other half $20 to tell the next person doing the experiment (a confederate) that the task was really interesting. Later, on a questionnaire the $1 group reported the task as more interesting than the $20 group. Why? Because the $1 they received to lie was insufficient justification for lying & no one wants to think they’d lie so easily, so to reduce the dissonance, they convinced themselves they actually liked the task (therefore they weren’t lying)
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In order for a discrepancy between attitudes & behavior to produce “dissonance” that leads to attitude change, what 4 conditions must be met?
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1) the behavior that’s inconsistent with your attitudes must have negative consequences (e.g., lying to other Ss), 2) you have to feel responsible for your bx, 3) the discrepancy must produce physiological arousal (experienced as a feeling of discomfort), 4) you have to attribute this physio arousal to your own bx.
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Heider’s Balance Theory
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we want to have attitudinal consistency with people we like & differ in attitudes with people we don’t like. You’re in an imbalanced state if you’re liberal and you’re in love with a conservative, or if you’re liberal and you really hate that other person who’s also liberal.
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interpersonal
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What variables impact the persuasiveness of a communicator?
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trustworthiness & credibility
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The Sleeper Effect
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the tendency for credible communicators to have a larger immediate effect, but one that diminishes over time such that eventually the persuasiveness of the non-credible communicator increases.
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In terms of persuasion research, when is more/longer information better in a message/communication?
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when your audience isn’t listening closely, long messages are better b/c they give the appearance of factual support. When your audience IS listening, longer messages are better only when you have really good content. Otherwise, longer messages weaken your persuasiveness.
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In terms of persuasion research, what kind of repetition is most effective?
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Don’t get redundant in one communication, but DO repeat the exact same message from the same source spread over time (TV commercials)
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What is the inoculation theory in persuasion research?
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It helps to expose someone to a weak version of the other side’s argument, because they’ll become more resistant to opposing arguments later on.
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What type of audience is most persuaded by a two-sided argument (3 characteristics)?
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1) if the person is initially opposed to the issue, 2) is relatively well-informed about the issue, 3) or is educated.
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How discrepant can a message generally be from the target’s position, and what kind of communicator can push this further?
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generally, it’s best if the position is moderately discrepant from the target’s initial position. If the communicator is highly credible, however, the message can be even more discrepant.
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When does inducing fear via a message make that message more persuasive?
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generally, fear doesn’t work. However, it can be effective if the fear arousing message includes specific instructions on how to avoid the feared danger.
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Which message has a greater impact, the 1st or 2nd one presented?
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it depends. If there’s a break after the presentations of 1 & 2 and before the attitude measurement, then the 1st one has the greater impact d/t primacy effect. If you present #1, then take a break, then present #2, and immediately after assess attitudes, message #2 has more impact b/c of recency effect.
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What are all the variables associated with persuasiveness of the communication/message?
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1) amount of information, 2) repetition, 3) 1-sided vs 2-sided arguments, 4) discrepancy, 5) appeals to fear, 6) order of presentation
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What 2 variables of a target audience are connected to the effectiveness of persuasive communication?
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1) low SE (lower SE makes you more persuadable), 2) forewarning (telling folks up front they’re about to be the targets of persuasion makes them LESS persuadeable)
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According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, what are the central and peripheral routes to persuasive communication?
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central route is employed when people think carefully about the message. Peripheral route is employed when people don’t think carefully about an argument’s content, focusing on other cues instead.
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According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, when a message is easily learned and stimulates the listener to dwell on favorable thoughts, which route of persuasive communication is more likely?
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central route
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What “cues” are likely to be attended to in “peripheral routes” to communication?
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attractiveness of communicator, emotional tone of message, and symbols.
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What are the general effects of crowding?
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higher density enhances whatever feelings a person already has.
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What gender is more impacted by the effects of crowding?
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research findings differ, but generally speaking, men tend to be more sensitive to and stressed by high density situations.
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The need for personal space increases gradually with age until ~age _____
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21
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What are the 2 personality characteristics linked with greater need for personal space?
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Low SE, high authoritarianism
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What climate factors have been demonstrated to have effects on mood?
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atmospheric ionization, air pollution, humidity, and lunar cycles.
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What variables related to noise pollution tend to make it more deleterious?
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uncontrollability and unpredictability
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What proportion of a child’s waking hours are spent watching TV (1991)?
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one-third
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Tolerance for aggression & reinforcement of traditional sex-role stereotypes result from
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TV watching
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What does forensic social psych have to teach us about jury size?
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juries smaller that 12 tend towards convicting the defendant.
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What does forensic social psych have to teach us about child witnesses?
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children age 5-10yo are less accurate than adults, but did NOT remember “touches that didn’t occur”
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What does forensic social psych have to teach us about courtroom procedure?
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judges who give instructions twice (b/f and after presentation of evidence) are more effective at enhancing jurors’ recall and interpretation of evidence.
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What does forensic social psych have to teach us about presentation of evidence?
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graphic evidence lowers jurors’ standards of proof, and brings out pro-prosecution bias.
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What does forensic social psych have to teach us about defendant attractiveness?
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it lowers judges’ sentences (unless their attractiveness was deliberately used for their part in the crime)
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What does forensic social psych have to teach us about inadmissible evidence?
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when judges say that something is inadmissible, jurors actually attend to it more.
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What aspects of Type A Personality are linked to coronary heart disease?
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the “hostility complex” – 1) cynical mistrust and 2) contempt for others, and the tendency to 3) readily express these feelings
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What’s the Buffer Effect with regard to stress?
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high perceived social support buffers against the effects of high stress.
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