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67 Cards in this Set
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cognitive dissonance
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a drive or feeling of discomfort, originally defined as being caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions and subsequently defined as being caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one's customary, typically positive self-conception
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self-affirmation theory
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the idea that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat
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impact bias
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the tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future negative events
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postdecision dissonance
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dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the choosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives
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lowballing
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an unscrupulous strategy whereby a salaesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price
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justification effect
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the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain
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external justification
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a reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., in order to receive a large reward or avoid severe punishment)
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internal justification
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the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (one's attitude or behavior)
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counterattitudinal advocacy
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stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude
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insufficient punishment
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the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals' devaluing the forbidden activity or object
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self-persuasion
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a long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification
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attitudes
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evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
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cognitively based attitude
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an attitude based on primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an atttiude object
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affectively based attitude
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an attitude based more on ppl's feelings and values than on beliefs about the nature of the attitude object
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classical conditioning
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the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on emotional properties of the first stimulus
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operant conditioning
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the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response (your grandma) is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus (the smell of mothballs) until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
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behaviorally based attitude
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an attitude based on how one behaves toward an attitude object
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explicit attitude
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attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
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implicit atttitude
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attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
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persuasive communication
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communication (a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue
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yale attitude change approach
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the study of the conditions under which ppl are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on "who said what to whom"--the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience
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elaboration likelihood model
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an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when ppl do not pay attention to the arguments but instead are swayed by surface characteristics
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central route to persuasion
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the case whereby ppl elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when ppl have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication
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peripheral route to persuasion
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the case whereby ppl do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues
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need for cognition
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a personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities
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fear-arousing communications
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persuasive messages that attempt to change ppl's attitudes by arousing fear in them
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heuristic-systematic model of persuasion
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an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause atttiude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics), such as "experts are always right"
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attitude inoculation
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making ppl immune to attempts to change their attitudes by giving them small doses of the arguments against their position initially
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reactance theory
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the idea that when ppl feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatended, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
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attitude assecibility
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the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which ppl can report how they feel about the object
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subliminal messages
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words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence ppl's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
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stereotype threat
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the apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
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conformity
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a change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other ppl
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informational social influence
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the influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an approriate course of action
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private acceptance
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conforming to other ppl's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
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public compliance
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conforming to other ppl's behavior publicly w/o necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying
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contagion
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the rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd
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mass psychogenic illness
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the occurrence, in a group of people, of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause
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social norms
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the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
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normative social influence
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the influence of other ppl lead us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not neccesarily private acceptance of those beliefs and behaviors
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social impact theory
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the idea that conforming to social influence depends on the strength of the group's importance, its immediacy, and the number of people in the group
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idiosyncrasy credits
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the tolerance a person earns over time by conforming to group norms, if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, a person can, on occasion, behave deviantly w/o retribution from the group
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minority influence
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the case where a minority group members influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority
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injunctive norms
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people's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved by others
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descriptive norms
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ppl's perceptions of how ppl actually behave in a given situation, regardless of whether the behavior is approved/disapproved of by the group
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group
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two or more ppl who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
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social roles
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shared expectations in a group about how particular ppl are supposed to behave
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group cohesiveness
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qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members
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social facilitation
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the tendency for ppl to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the prescence of other ans their individual performance can be evaluated
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social loafing
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the tendency for ppl to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evauluated
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deindividuation
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the loosening of normal constraints on behavior when ppl can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd), leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
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process loss
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any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
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transactive memory
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the combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual
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groupthink
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a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
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group polarization
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the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
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great person theory
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the idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation
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transactional leaders
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leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
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transformational leaders
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leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
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contingency theory of leadership
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the idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship oriented the leader is an on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
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task-oriented leader
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a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with the workers' feelings and relationships
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relationship-oriented leader
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a leader who is concerned primarily with workers' feelings and relationships
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social dilemma
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a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
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tit-for-tat strategy
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a means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial
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public goods dilemma
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a social dilemma in which individuals must contribute to a common pool in order to maintain the public good
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commons dilemma
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a social dilemma in which everyone takes from a common pool of goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation but will disappear if overused
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negotiation
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a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
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integrative solution
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a solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side
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