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67 Cards in this Set

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cognitive dissonance
a drive or feeling of discomfort, originally defined as being caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions and subsequently defined as being caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one's customary, typically positive self-conception
self-affirmation theory
the idea that people will reduce the impact of a dissonance-arousing threat to their self-concept by focusing on and affirming their competence on some dimension unrelated to the threat
impact bias
the tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future negative events
postdecision dissonance
dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the choosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives
lowballing
an unscrupulous strategy whereby a salaesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price
justification effect
the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain
external justification
a reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., in order to receive a large reward or avoid severe punishment)
internal justification
the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (one's attitude or behavior)
counterattitudinal advocacy
stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude
insufficient punishment
the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals' devaluing the forbidden activity or object
self-persuasion
a long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification
attitudes
evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
cognitively based attitude
an attitude based on primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an atttiude object
affectively based attitude
an attitude based more on ppl's feelings and values than on beliefs about the nature of the attitude object
classical conditioning
the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on emotional properties of the first stimulus
operant conditioning
the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response (your grandma) is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus (the smell of mothballs) until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
behaviorally based attitude
an attitude based on how one behaves toward an attitude object
explicit attitude
attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
implicit atttitude
attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
persuasive communication
communication (a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue
yale attitude change approach
the study of the conditions under which ppl are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on "who said what to whom"--the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience
elaboration likelihood model
an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when ppl do not pay attention to the arguments but instead are swayed by surface characteristics
central route to persuasion
the case whereby ppl elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when ppl have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication
peripheral route to persuasion
the case whereby ppl do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues
need for cognition
a personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities
fear-arousing communications
persuasive messages that attempt to change ppl's attitudes by arousing fear in them
heuristic-systematic model of persuasion
an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause atttiude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics), such as "experts are always right"
attitude inoculation
making ppl immune to attempts to change their attitudes by giving them small doses of the arguments against their position initially
reactance theory
the idea that when ppl feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatended, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
attitude assecibility
the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which ppl can report how they feel about the object
subliminal messages
words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence ppl's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
stereotype threat
the apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
conformity
a change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other ppl
informational social influence
the influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an approriate course of action
private acceptance
conforming to other ppl's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
public compliance
conforming to other ppl's behavior publicly w/o necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying
contagion
the rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd
mass psychogenic illness
the occurrence, in a group of people, of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause
social norms
the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
normative social influence
the influence of other ppl lead us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not neccesarily private acceptance of those beliefs and behaviors
social impact theory
the idea that conforming to social influence depends on the strength of the group's importance, its immediacy, and the number of people in the group
idiosyncrasy credits
the tolerance a person earns over time by conforming to group norms, if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, a person can, on occasion, behave deviantly w/o retribution from the group
minority influence
the case where a minority group members influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority
injunctive norms
people's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved by others
descriptive norms
ppl's perceptions of how ppl actually behave in a given situation, regardless of whether the behavior is approved/disapproved of by the group
group
two or more ppl who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
social roles
shared expectations in a group about how particular ppl are supposed to behave
group cohesiveness
qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members
social facilitation
the tendency for ppl to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the prescence of other ans their individual performance can be evaluated
social loafing
the tendency for ppl to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evauluated
deindividuation
the loosening of normal constraints on behavior when ppl can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd), leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
process loss
any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
transactive memory
the combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual
groupthink
a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
group polarization
the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
great person theory
the idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation
transactional leaders
leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
transformational leaders
leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
contingency theory of leadership
the idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship oriented the leader is an on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
task-oriented leader
a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with the workers' feelings and relationships
relationship-oriented leader
a leader who is concerned primarily with workers' feelings and relationships
social dilemma
a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
tit-for-tat strategy
a means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial
public goods dilemma
a social dilemma in which individuals must contribute to a common pool in order to maintain the public good
commons dilemma
a social dilemma in which everyone takes from a common pool of goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation but will disappear if overused
negotiation
a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
integrative solution
a solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side