Social Psych Exam #2

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natural selection

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the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive & reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations

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evolutionary psych

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the study of the evolution of cognition & behavior using principles of natural selection; evolutionary perspective highlights the kinship that results from our shared human nature

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, & traditions shared by a large group of people & transmitted from one generation to the next

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norms

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standards for accepted & expected behavior; norms prescribe "proper" behavior; they describe what most others do & what is "normal"

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personal space

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the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies; its size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us

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leung & bond's universal 5 socal beliefs

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1. cynicism: "powerful people tend to exploit others"
2. social complexity : "one has to deal w/ matters according to the specific circumstances"
3. reward for application: "one will succeed if he/she really tries"
4. spirituality: "religious faith contributes to good mental health"
5. fate control: "fate determines one's success & failures"

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gender

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in psych, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male & female

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cultural perspective

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highlights human diversity; the behaviors & ideas that define a group & that are transmitted across generations; the differences in attitudes & behaviors from one culture to another indicate the extent to which we're the products of cultural norms & roles

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cross cultural psychologists

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examine the "essential universality" of all people; despite their differences, cultures have a number of norms in common, such as respecting privacy in friendships & dissapproving of incest

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empathy

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the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes

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aggression

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physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone; in lab experiments, this might mean delievering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings

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androgynous

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from andro (man) & gyn (woman) - thus mixing both masculine & feminine characteristics

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gender role

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a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males & females; reflect biological influence, but also illustrate culture's strong impact

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who is known to occupy more socially dominant roles?

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males

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interaction

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a relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)

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3 ways persons & situations interact

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1. individuals vary in how they interpret & react to a given situation
2. people choose many of the situations that influence them
3. people help create their social situations

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conformity

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a change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure

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compliance

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conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing

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obedience

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acting in accord with a direct order or command

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acceptance

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conformity that involves both acting & believing in accord with social pressure

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3 varieties of conformity

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compliance, obedience, & acceptance

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autokinetic phenomenon

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self (auto) motion (kinetic); the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark

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3 classic sets of experiements to illustrate how researchers have studied conformity

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1. muzafer sherif: observed that others' judgments influenced people's estimates of the movement of a point of light that actually didn't move; norms for "proper" answers emerged & survived both over long periods of time & thru succeeding generations of research participants
2. solomon asch: had ppl listen to others judgments of which of 3 comparison lines were equal to a standard line & then make the same judgment themselves; when the others unanimously gave a wrong answer, the participants conformed 37% of the time
3. stanley milgram: his obedience experiments elicited an extreme form of compliance; under optimum conditions, a legit, close at hand commander, a remote victim & no one else to exemplify obedience, 65% of his adult male participants fully obeyed instructions to deliever what were supposedly trumatizing electric shocks to a screaming innocent victim in an adjacent room

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the 3 classic experiments to illustrate how researchers have studied conformity exposed the potency of several phenomena like...?

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1. behavior & attitudes are mutually reinforcing, enabling a small act of evil to foster the attitude that leads to a bigger evil act
2. the power of the situation can induce good people, faced with dire circumstances, to commit reprehensible acts (although dire situaions may produce heroism in others)

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cohesiveness

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a "we feeling" ; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction to one another

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conformity is reduced if..?

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the modeled behavior or belief is not unanimous

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what is conformity enhanced by?

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group cohesion

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what causes a greater likelihood of conformity?

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the higher the status of those modeling the behavior / belief, people conform when their responses are public or in the the presence of the group
-a prior commitment to a certain behavior or belief increases the likelihood that a person will stick w/ that commitment rather than conform

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normative influence

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conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance; we want to be liked; the tendency to conform more when responding publicly reflects normative influence

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informational influence

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conformity occuring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people; the tendency to conform more on difficult decision making tasks reflects information influence: we want to be right

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2 reasons people conform

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normative & information influence

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reactance

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a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom; reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action

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the power of social pressure is joined by a complementary emphasis on ?

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the power of the person

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persuasion

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the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes or behaviors

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central route to persuasion

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occurs when interested people focus on the arguments & respond w/ favorable thoughts

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peripheral route to persuasion

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occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

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is central or peripheral route to persuasion more durable?

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central; it's more thoughtful & less superficial; more likely to influence behavior

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credibility

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believability; a credible communicator is perceived as both expert & trustworthy; tend to be persuasive

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sleeper effect

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a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it

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attractiveness

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having qualities that appeal to an audience; an appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference

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6 persuasion principles

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1. authority: people defer to credible experts
2. liking: people respond more affirmatively to those they like
3. social proof: people allow the example of others to validate how to think, feel, act
4. reciprocity: people feel obliged to repay in kind what they've received
5. consistency: people tend to honor their public commitments
6. scarcity: people prize what's scarce

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primacy effect

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other things being equal, info presented first usually has the most influence

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recency effect

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info presented last sometimes has the most influence; recency effects are less common than primacy effects

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channel of communication

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the way the message is delivered- whether face to face, in writing, on film, or in some other way

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two-step flow of communication

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the process by which media influence often occurs thru opinion leaders, who in turn influence others

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need for cognition

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the motivation to think & analyze; assessed by agreement w/items such as "the notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me" & disagreement w/items such as "I only think as hard as I have to"

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4 factors that make persuasion effective

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1. the communicator: who says it
2. the message: what is said
3. the channel: how it's said
4. the audience: to whom it's said

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cult (also called new religious movement)

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a group typically characterized by:
1. distinctive rituals & beliefs related to its devotion to a god or person
2. isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture
3. a charismatic leader
(a sect by contrast, is a spinoff from a major religion)

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cults successes result from what 3 general techniques?

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1. eliciting behavioral commitments
2. applying principles of effective persuasion
3. isolating members in like-minded groups

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attitude inoculation

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exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available

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how do people resist persuasion?

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a prior public commitment to one's own position, stimulated perhaps by a mild attack on the position, breeds resistance to later persuasion

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group

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2 or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact w/ & influence one another & perceive one another as "us"

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co-actors

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co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity

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social facilitation

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-original meaning: the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present
-current meaning: the strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of others

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evaluation apprehension

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concern for how others are evaluating us

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experiments suggest that we are aroused by others presence that stems from what?

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its stems partly from evaluation apprehension & partly from distract- a conflict btwn paying attention to others & concentrating on the task
-other experiments suggest that the presence of others can be arousing even when we're not being evaluated or distracted

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social loafing

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the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable

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free riders

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people who benefit from the group, but give little in return

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deindividuation

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loss of self-awareness & evalutation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good & bad
-esp likely when people are in a large group, are physically anonymous & are aroused & distracted

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when high levels of ____ combine w/ _____ , people may abandon their normal restraints & lose their sense of individuality

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social aroual; diffused responsibility

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self awareness

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a self conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself; it makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes & dispositions

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group polarization

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group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within a group

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social comparison

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evaluating one's opinions & abilities by comparing oneself w/ others

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pluralistic ignorance

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a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding

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loneliness

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painful awareness that our social relationships are less numerous or satisfying than we desire

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what group of people is considered the most lonely?

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adolescents; may feel depressed/bad about themselves

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2 ways to react to loneliness

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1. sad passivity: don't do anything about it
2.active solitude: exercise, be active

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is loneliness subjective or objective?

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subjective; lonely ppl feel like they need a high number of friends to be considered not lonely; they set a high bar/expectations; feel like they need a bf/gf so they weren't lonely; felt loneliness was their own fault

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when do people feel lonely?

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-when important relationships have been severed (bf/gf, parents, friends)
-on holidays (ex: like vday)
-when alone on weekends or evenings
-certain kinds of housing situations (college)

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personal characteristics related to loneliness

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shyness, low self esteem, self absorption w/ accompanying conversational habits

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how can one change conversational patterns assoc w/ loneliness or reduce loneliness?

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training

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loneliness is assoc w/ negative physiological outcomes like?

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-slow wound healing
-high levels of vascular tension
-weaker immune response

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depression realism

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-tendency for mildly depressed people to make accurate rather than self serving judgments, attributions & predictions
-depression is assoc w/ attributing failure to stable, global & internal causes leading to sense of helplessness (things aren't gonna change, it's long lasting)

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behavioral genetics

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-the study of genetic (inherited) influences on cognitive & emotional processes & personality
-how our genes affect who we are/how we function

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indentical vs. fraternal twins

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identical: (monozygotic) genetically identical bc they develop from the same egg & sperm; share 100% of genetic code
fraternal (dizygotic) : genetically equivalent to a sibling; share 50% of their genetic material

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are identical twins raised together more similar than fraternal twins raised togther?

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greater similarity of identical twins suggests an inherited genetic component

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do adopted childrens' personalities more closely resemble their adoptive or biological parents?

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greater similarity to biological parents suggests an inherited genetic component

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concordance

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similarity of diagnosis; the degree to which the presence of a disorder in one individual predicts its presence in another
-lack of concordance.. only 1 twin has problem

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what's the concordance rate for schizophrenia?

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50% for identical twins; 9% for fraternal

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what's the concordance rate for alchoholism?

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65% for identical twins; 30% for fraternal

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why do a number of studies suggest genetic influence is greater in higher ses fams?

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schooling & family situation is one that helps individuals reach their full potential rather than blocking that for many individuals
-ex:music lessons, good coaching, etc

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gender roles

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-shared expectations about appropriate behavior for individuals based solely on their sex
-all cultures have gender role differentiation
-all lang have gender terms
-much similarity across cultures, but also some notable differences

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couvade

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father participates in birth of child in diff ways; may experience same symptoms as mother
-in many cultures, gender roles dictate elaborate rituals for father related to birth of a child

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gender & workplace

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-women seen as less competent than males when they give negative feedback
-women providing negative feedback judged more negatively than males giving same feedback

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gender stereotypes

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men: active, adventurous, coarse, courageious, dominant, enterprising, independent, stern, strong, tough, etc

women: affectionate, anxious, attractive, complaining, dependent, emotional, fearful, gentle, mild, sexy, soft hearted, submissive, weak, etc

-stereotypes or reality?
-gender stereotypes have some basis in self reported personality differences btwn males & females, but they exaggerate these

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actual diff btwn men & women

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women are better at sending/receiving non verbal signals & have more empathy; males are more task oriented & less socially oriented interaction style

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what activates stereotypes so they influence behavior & perception?

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-stereotypes can be primed by stereotyped material in surroundings
-gender stereotypes are activated when physical appearance of others is highly masculine or feminine in stereotypical way
-gender stereotypes are also activated when the perceiver is sex-typed, not androgynous

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sex typed

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individuals who describe themselves in ways very consistent w/ gender stereotypes

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androgynous

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individuals who describe themselves as evidencing both traditionally male & traditionally female personality traits

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are women who dress in "feminine" maner judged more or less positively by personnel administrators?

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less positively

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what types of people are more likely to be evaluated in stereotypic terms when they are "solo" in a group

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women & blacks

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ann hopkins case

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-social psych in supreme court
-more billable hrs
-wasnt made a partner
-she won- treated differently than male partners

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salary discrimination

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women may not be aware of salary discrimination when it exists

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major discrimination related to gender roles?

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-females subject to poorer nutrition
-less health care
-selective absorption (high where female infanticide was high)

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responsibility of fathers

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endowment, provision (economic support), protection

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roles

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set of behaviors that individuals occupying specific positions w/in a group are expected to perform

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kelmans typology of social influence

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compliance: influence accepted in order to achieve a favorable reaction, to gain a tangible award, or to avoid punishment
identification: influence occurs b/c the individual's desire to be like another person or to maintain a satisfying relationship w/ them leads to personal acceptance of influence from others

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internalization

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influence occurs b/c the individual comes personally to believe that the new attitudes or ways of behaving are correct
-ex: rational evaluation of new info leads to a new attitude, a new approach is adopted b/c it seems useful in solving a problem, etc

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milgram experiment

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-famous example of compliance
-actual shock delivered much higher than predicted
-percent of participants shocking others much higher than predicted

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what factors reduced the shock level in the milgram experiment?

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experiment leaves room/telephones, victim is closer, confederate models refusal

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factors contributed to compliance in milgram expt?

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-participants shift responsibility
-researcher uses euphamism ("the procedure")
-"scientist" & "teacher" roles highlighted

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conformity

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doing what others expect us to do
-conformity pressures can be very strong
-outcome can be good or bad

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normative influence

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conformity due to desire to fulfill others' expectations

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informational influence

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conformity due to acceptance of info about reality provided by others

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pluralistic ignorance

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widely shared misperception of others' thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that leads individuals to act at variance w/their own inclinations in ways reinforcing misperception

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cialdini's 6 principles of social influence

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reciprocity, consistency w/commitment, social validation, friendship/liking enhances persuasibility, authority, scarcity

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reciprocity

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the social expectation that people will respond to each other in kind

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consistency w/ commitment

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one feels pressure to act in a way that's consistent w/ his/her prior commitment

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social validation

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we frequently decide what's appropriate for us to think, feel, and do by examining how others like us handle the situation

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friendship/liking

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we prefer saying "yes" to requests made by people we know & like than to strangers

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authority

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the persuader should appear to be authoritative
-related to importance of credibility

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scarcity

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items & opportunities seem more valuable when they are scarce

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online & tv ads brought in how much money in 2011?

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online: 25.9 billion
tv: 58.8 billion

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examples of media & non-media marketing

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media: product placement in movies/tv, social media scanning to personalize ads
non media: "ordinary" people sign up to influence others, eye-catching events

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2 basic marketing approaches

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1. hard sell: emphasizes qualities of product; ex: MPG, uses info
2. soft sell: "psych out" consumers & use this info to influence them; ex: how people think/act

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effective marketing techniques

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get attention & motive action
-must understand differences in people

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3 general types of american lifestyles

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1. belongers: stable, hardworking, often blue collar jobs, value family & community
2. societally conscious: well educated, well paid, value simplicity, worthwhile causes, good nutrition, environment
3. achievers: well educated, successful business people & professionals, value display of their status & success

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micro targeting in politics

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use food preference & magazine subscriptions to define groups

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self monitoring

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being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations & adjusting one's behavior to create the desired impression

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high in self monitoring vs. low in self monitoring

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high: constantly paying attention to things & adjusting accordingly; respond to image ads (soft sell)..ex: you can see the difference
low: i am the way i am, take me or leave me; respond to quality ads (hard sell).. ex: you can taste the difference

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primacy effect

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other things being equal, info presented first usually has the biggest effect

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life lessons from ad man

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all values=subjective
-persuasion better than forced compliance

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successful social marketing

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-broad local consultation about problem to tackle
-local script writers
-everyday charcters w/ everyday problems
-positive role models have positive outcomes
-negative role models have negative outcomes
-transitional characters (start bad, become good)
-the story itself is the message
-lessons learned are breifly summarized, celebrities
-names/addresses of organizations providing relevant services listed

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deindividuation

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-loss of self awareness, individualty & restraint
-occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad

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deindividuation is increased by?

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-being part of a large group
-engaging in arousing distracting activities
-strong emotions
-anonymity

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what did the halloween deindividuation studies show?

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taking extra candy is increased by:
-being in a group
-being aroused (by music or exercise)
-being anonymous
*8% took more than allowed when alone & not anonymous
*80% took more than allowed when in a group & not anonymous

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brainwashing

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attempt to change basic aspects of individual's values, attitudes & behaviors thru intense planned social experience

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conditions facilitating brainwashing

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sudden seizure, total control, isolation from rest of society, disorientation & humiliation, ignores or criticizes past statuses & behaviors, participation in own resocialization, extreme sanctions, new peer group

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self help groups

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-2 or more people who interact for longer than a few moments; influence each other & perceive one another as us
-more than just a collection of individuals
-no formal leader to self help groups

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what approaches do self help groups use?

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-inspirational testimonies
-mutual help
-discuss similarity of problems
-collective praise/encouragement
-social support

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do self help groups work?

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-often effective compared to no treatment or other accepted form of psychological treatment
-but negative results are found when: intense conflict in group, evaluative atmosphere, or poor leader

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what are some likely sources of change in self help groups?

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-group instills hope
-leads to recognition that many others have problems too
-interpersonal learning
-group meets the need for intimacy
-development of social skills

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leadership

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-the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or a set of goals
-leadership is about dealing w/change.. management is about dealing w/complexity
-what makes an outstanding leader isn't fully understood
-one of the most observed & least understood phenomena on earth

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examples of outstanding leaders

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ghandi, martin luther king, churchill, jack welsh, steve jobs, ratan tata

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leadership can be seen mainly as?

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control; but currently understood more as an exchange process involving leader, group being led & setting

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similarities in views of leadership

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all endorse:
-charismatic/values based on leadership
-team-oriented leadership (relationship emphasis)
-humane leadership (generous, compassionate, patient, modest, etc)
-autonomous leadership (independent)

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charismatic leader

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-has a vision of a better future (& a long term strategy for attaining that goal) expressed in a way that appeals to others
-takes personal risks to achieve vision
-is sensitive to follower needs & feelings
-may exhibit unusual "out of the ordinary" behaviors

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key properties of vision for a leader?

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1. inspirational possibilities often centered on values
2. it is realizable
3. articulated w/ images others respond to positively

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charismatic leadership

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-often found in politics bc ideology can provide strong basis for vision
-also seems effective in business in times of high stress for the company (ex: start up, organization threatening crisis, etc)
-when found in business, it's related to profit for compaies as well as high performance & satisfaction among workers

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downside of charasmatic leadership

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-blurring of line between personal & company interests
-charisma may lead to a climate where others who identify strongly w/the leader allow no challenge to leader's ideas or behaviors

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transformation leadership

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inspires others to transcend their own self interest by:
-providing a vision, instilling pride & trust
-inspirational motivation: communicating high expectations , expressing important purposes simply & effectively
-promotes rationality & good problem solving including creativity
-gives personal attention to employees

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what is transformational leadership assoc w/?

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-high quality products
-worker motivation & satisfaction
-lower worker turnover & stress
-perceived effectiveness of leaders
-higher profit

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why is transformational leadership effective?

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-vision motivates & provides ambitious goals
-focus on creativity & problem is beneficial
-personal attention creates commitment & trust

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task behaviors

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related directly to achieving group goals, such as defining problems, establishing communication w/networks, providing evaluative feedback

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socio emotional behaviors

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influencing group members feelings, motivation, job satisfaction, etc

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characteristics of leaders

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-energetic, assertive, articulate, & hardworking
-intelligent
-good task abilities
-good social skills

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other factors influencing leadership

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height, gender, participation

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leadership in diverse groups

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-in many ways like leadership in homogeneous organizations
-but diversity does pose some special challenges
-important to meet these well as workforce and clientele becomes more diverse

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symbolic function

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-leaders actions exemplify the company & its policies
-support of authorities for positive and productive relations between members of diff groups is vital
-so symbolic meaning of action is important in setting the tone modeling acceptance w/ diverse management
-volunteerism in diverse communities, etc

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group think

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a dysfunctional kind of thinking emerging when the desire for agreement overwhelms realistic appraisal of actions in cohesive groups

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factors leading to group think

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a directive leader, cohesive group, isolation from dissenting ideas

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signs of group think

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-illusion of invulnerability
-unquestioned belief in morality of group actions
-rationalization rather than reflection on actions
-opponent seen in stereotyped terms
-pressures toward conformity
-self-censorship
-apparent unanimity
-mindguarding

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preventing group think

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-leader doesn't state opinion up front
-devil's advocate role
-bring in outsiders w/diff perspectives
-explicitly ask for & address doubts (later meeting after time for reflection)

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differences in views of leadership

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-western cultures strongly endorses participation leadership (actively participating w/subordinates in group tasks) & strongly rejects self-protective approach (bossy, self interested, relies heavily on formalities & procedures)
-asian cultures much less positive about participatory style, although they approve of it mildly. also much less negative about self protective leadership

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authoritarian

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prejudice towards groups & even groups that don't actually exist

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4 origins of negative group intergroup relations/ where conflict comes from

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1. personality (authoritarian) - connection btwn personality & prejudice
2.social learning
3. realistic conflict
4. social identity theory

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social learning

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-direct teaching of positive or negative attitudes toward other groups (modeling)
-observation of verbal and non-verbal behavior

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relistic conflict (sherif)

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negative intergroup relations are caused by competition btwn groups for scarce resources

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robbers cave study

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-group identities established competition w/another group
-result: prejudice & stereotyping accusations of "bad" behavior; unfair judgments of others accomplishments; attact on outgroup & their property

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social identity (tajfel)

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individuals want a positive social identity - knowledge that they belong to a group that's positively valued
-they often prefer positive to accurate evaluations
-they are motivated to belong to positively evaluated groups
-leads to motivation to perceive your group as better than others, in order to feel good about yourself
-hard to test; developed minimal group paradigm
-no "real" differences

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favoritism of one's minimal group is typical bc?

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-work quality
-allocation of rewards (no self interest)
-so social categorization itself is basis for discrimination
-may even prefer "gap" to "absolute" level of resources
-more powerful groups discriminate more than less powerful groups
-less powerful discriminate too, esp when they may become more powerful in future

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groups w/negative social identity may strive for change..

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-try to be absorbed into group w/ more positive identity
-redefine previously devalued characteristics as positive
-create/adopt new dimensions for comparison
-direct competition w/ favored group
-compare w/other in group members (individual strategy)

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3 components of negative intergroup relations

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1. prejudice
2. stereotyping
3. discrimination

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prejudice

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negative prejudgment of a group & its individual members

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stereotype

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a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people

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prejudice & stereotypes are biased how?

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in perception & memory

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is stereotype or prejudice info processed more quickly?

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stereotype; stereotype consistent info gets more attention than inconsistent info which we: often ignore & try to refute

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discrimination

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negative behavior toward a group or its members on the basis of their group membership

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how do just world beliefs contribute to discrimination?

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-ppl have a need to believe that the world is orderly, predictable & just & that ppl get what they deserve
-we do this to plan our lives or achieve our goals we need to assume that our actions will have predictable consequences blame the victim

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is racial discrimination a thing of the past in the us?

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-whites: over 2/3 say yes
-blacks: less than 1/3 say yes

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allport's contact theory

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-contact btwn members of diff groups will improve intergroup relations if certain conditions are met

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3 aspects to allport's contact theory

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1. equal status w/in contact situation
2. emphasis on cooperation- mutually shared goals; all needed to succeed
3.support of authorities: make decisions that promote good relations, modeling, can reward/punish others' constructive/destructive behavior

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factors impeding achievement of equal status include? (part of contact theory)

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-population differences related to past or present discrimination elsewhere
-interracial interaction disability
-different conceptions of whether equal status exists

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why does cooperation improve intergroup relations?

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-increases perceptions of similarity
-leads to the development of friendship
-reduces intergroup anxiety
-personalizes outgroup members, which can reduce stereotypes

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statistical analysis of over 500 studies on the contact theory concludes?

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-contact reduces prejudice
-this effect is much stronger when allport conditions are met

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decategorization

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-making group membership less salient & individual characteristics more salient

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recategorization

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constructing broader more inclusive identities

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stereotype threat

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apprehension caused by concern that one might confirm an existing stereotype- in one's own or other's eyes

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measuring impact of stereotype threat

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-all members of stereotyped group presented w/ same task related to stereotype
-half told it measures stereotyped characteristic & half told it measures something else
-task completed & scores compared

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stereotype threat undermines performance by?

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-promoting anxiety
-lowering expectations about one's likely performance
-taking up cognitive resources

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conditions creating stereotype threat

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-knowledge of stereotypes existance
-belief that task is related to the stereotype
-salience of group membership

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factors increasing stereotype threat

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1. identification w/the domain
2. identification w/ the stereotyped group
3. stigma consciousness
4. acceptance of stereotypes

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dis-identification

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psychological disengagement from that performance domain to protect the self
-lessened enjoyment of work
-select less challenging work

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how to reduce stereotype threat

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-self affirmation
-see intelligence as maleable
-present tests in a way that minimizes anxiety
-minimize salience of stereotypes
-create "superordinate" identities

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aggression (& name 2 types)

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physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
-hostile & instrumental

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hostile aggression

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driven by anger & performed as an end in itself

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instrumental aggression

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means to another end

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individual aggression

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neural, genetic (esp combined w/environment), biochemical (alcohol/hormones), frustration anger agression, relative deprivation, social learning, cues (weapons), heat or pain, violent tv & video games, cultural factors

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impact of tv violence is greatest when?

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1. views are already predisposed to violence
2. viewers are young
3. viewer & aggression are similar
4. viewers identify strongly w/ aggressor
5. physical & verbal violence are depicted
6. violence is realistic