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58 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Self-Concept
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The content of the self; that is, or knowledge about who we are
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Self-Awareness
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The act of thinking about ourselves
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Independent View of Self
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A way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people
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Interdependent View of Self
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A way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationship to other people; recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others
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Introspection
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The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
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Self-Awareness Theory
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The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values
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Causal Theories
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Theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder")
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Reasons-Generated Attitude Change
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Attitude change resulting from thinking about the basis for one's attitudes; people assume their attitudes match those that are plausible and easy to verbalize
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Self-Perception Theory
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The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
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Intrinsic Motivation
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The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
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Extrinsic Motivation
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The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
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Overjustificiation effect
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The tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
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Task-Contingent Rewards
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Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done
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Performance-Contingent Rewards
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rewards that are based on how well we perform a task
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Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
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The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it
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Misattribution of Arousal
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The process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
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Appraisal Theories of Emotion
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Theories holding that emotions result from people's interpretations and explanations of events, even in the absence of physiological arousal
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Fixed Mindset
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The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot charge
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Growth Mindset
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The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
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Social Comparison Theory
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The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
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Downward Social Comparison
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Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are on a particular trait or ability
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Upward Social Comparison
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Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability
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Social Tuning
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The process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes
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Impression Management
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The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen
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Ingratiation
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The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status
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Self-Handicapping
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The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves
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Cognitive Dissonance
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A drive or feeling of discomfort, originally defined as being caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions and subsequently defined as being caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one's customary, typically positive self-conception
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Impact Bias
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The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future negative events
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Post Decision Dissonance
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Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives
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Lowballing
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An unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price
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Justification of Effort
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The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain
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External Justification
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A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., in order to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment)
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Internal Justification
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The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior)
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Counter Attitudinal Advocacy
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Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude
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Hypocrisy Induction
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The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior
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Insufficient Punishment
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The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals' devaluing the forbidden activity or object
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Self-Persuasion
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A long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts of self-justification
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Attitudes
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Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
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Cognitively Based Attitude
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An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
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Affectively Based Attitude
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An attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object
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Classical Conditioning
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The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response (e.g., your grandmother) is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not (e.g., the smell of mothballs) until the neutral stimulus take on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
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The phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward (positive reinforcement) or punishment
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Behaviorally Based Attitude
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An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object
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Explicit Attitudes
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Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
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Implicit Attitudes
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Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
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Persuasive Communication
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Communication (e.g., a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue
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Yale Attitude Change Approach
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The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on "who said what to whom"- the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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A model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change; centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments by are instead swayed by surface characteristics (e.g., who gave the speech)
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Central Route to Persuasion
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The case whereby people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication
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Peripheral Route to Persuasion
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The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by outside cues
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Need for Cognition
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A personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities
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Attitude Inoculation
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Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position
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Reactance Theory
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The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
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Attitude Accessibility
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The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object
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Theory of Planned Behavior
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The idea that the best predictors of a person's deliberate behaviors are the person's attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
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Subliminal Messages
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Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
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Tesser Model of Self-Esteem Maintenance
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Performance, Relevance to Self-Image, Emotional Closeness
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Self-Discrepancy Theory
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Three selves; Actual, Ideal, Ought
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