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78 Cards in this Set

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  • Back
Identify three parenting risk factors according to the NICHD (2004), which influence the continuing or increasing of a child’s physical aggression during preschool?
a. Lower-income families
b. Less educated mothers
c. Parents observed to be less sensitive and responsive
What two features do all definitions of aggression share?
a. Perpetrators must intend to harm.
b. Victims must feel hurt.
What changes in the association between social aggression and peer group outcomes may occur between middle childhood and adolescence?
a. Social aggression is linked to peer rejection in childhood, but in adolescence social aggression becomes positively related to perceived popularity with peers.
What developmental pattern seems to best predict violence in adolescence and adulthood?
Children who begin aggressive & antisocial behavior early (the “early starter group”). Less empirical support for adolescent-onset group.
What determines whether a physically aggressive child will be rejected by peers?
a. Whether a physically aggressive boy is rejected depends on whether he also has other desirable qualities (e.g., outgoing, cool, athletic, etc.)

b. Also depends on context, degree to which aggressive child’s behavior is different from other kids in group (e.g., aggressive kids liked more in group of aggressive kids).
***Describe the different effects of physical discipline on the externalization of problems for European American children versus African American children. What might account for the difference?
NO ANSWER
Instrumental Aggression
a. Aggression that is cool and deliberate and serves to achieve social goals.
Reactive Aggression
a. Aggression that is angry, impulsive, and motivated by frustration.
Social aggression
a. Behavior that harms others’ friendships and social status by social exclusion, gossip, and friendship manipulation.
Aggressogenic cognitive style
a. Endorsing aggression as an appropriate strategy for resolving conflicts.
***What are the four types of ethnic socialization used to prepare ethnic minority children for dealing with discrimination?
NO ANSWER
According to Davis (1942), what are three types of rewards used to create class positions by motivating individuals into social positions?
a. Financial resources
b. Leisure or entertainment
c. Rewards that contribute to self-respect and ego enhancement (e.g., prestige)
What are three (of five) models proposed by Jencks & Mayer (1990) to explain the mediating processes linking youth’s developmental outcomes to neighborhood characteristics?
a. Institutional resource model
b. Relative deprivation model
c. Competition model
d. Contagion/epidemic model
e. Collective socialization model
Evidence exists that the effects of education are discontinuous and that the points at which degrees are conferred have the most significant effect on outcomes. What does this suggest about the benefits of education?
a. It suggests that the benefit of education is largely due to credentialing rather than knowledge and skills learned.
Evaluate the saying, “race is a social construct” by providing evidence against the biological determinants of race as well as evidence in favor of the social constructions of race.
a. Against biological determinants: humans are genetically 99.9% identical; American conceptualizations of “races” are not genetically distinct populations.

b. For social construction: race can only be understood through its interpretation by society; racial effects are “socially constructed lay theory” that has psychological consequences and focuses on boundaries between people; race reflects differential power as much as any biological category.
Why is the use of poverty as an indicator of SES flawed?
a. Poverty level is a dollar value based on subsistence food levels for biological survival. It is based on the USDA’s 1964 economy food plan for survival in short-term emergency situations – it was not intended to define poverty generally, but to provide a snapshot of intense poverty in the United States. Even though its assessment is problematic, it’s widely used in research because poverty status defines eligibility for social support programs.
Explain how neighborhood characteristics perpetuate social stratification
a. A family’s residential location dictates the quality and availability of resources by determining the proximity to good jobs and schools, safety, and the quality of social networks. Differential access to resources often result in reinforcement of social-class groups and reproduction of class across generation; e.g., high-SES neighborhoods have more social capital to demand better schools which leads to stronger effects of same “dose” of education for high-SES children.
What are the four levels of influence that SES, race, and ethnicity have on a child’s development?
a. Macro processes: structural, cultural, and stratification
b. Neighborhood and community processes
c. Family-level beliefs and processes
d. Individual processes
What problems can occur from failing to adequately distinguish between race and ethnicity in research?
a. Races and ethnicities tend to be heterogeneous in composition. When researchers provide little conceptual distinction between race and ethnicity we lose this heterogeneity and assume that between-group variability (e.g., between Latino and African American) is greater than within-group variability. It can also result in comparing racial groups (e.g., Blacks) with ethnic groups (e.g., Mexican Americans and drawing cultural conclusions when groups vary significantly on within-group cultural heterogeneity.
Ethnicity
a. The groups of people who identify themselves as interconnected because of shared history, common language, nationality, or ancestry.
Race
a. Grouping based on presumed genetic, biological, or physical similarities.
SES
a. The distributions of resources, power, and influence within a society and a person’s or family’s relative standing among others in society with regard to such resources, power, prestige, and influence.
How does Little clarify the research on reactive/proactive and overt/relational aggression?
a. Overt and relational aggression are highly correlated.
b. Proactive and reactive are NOT significantly correlated.
c. I.e., form is highly correlated but function is not – people might mix up forms of aggression but don’t tend to mix up function of aggression.
What does research indicate as the prevalent developmental trajectory for violent adults?
a. The best predictor of violence in adulthood is violence in childhood, but not necessarily in adolescence.
In the Warman and Cohen study, what was the best predictor of whether or not a child would become aggressive versus discontinue aggression?
a. Out of a large number of variables (e.g., self evaluation of social competence, peer nominations, etc.) ONLY variable that significantly predicted stability vs. discontinuation of aggression was average aggression level of mutual friends.
What’s the difference between sociometric popularity and perceived popularity, and how does aggression (in general) relate to each? What did Kuryluk show to be a significant moderator of this relation?
a. Sociometric popularity is a method in which each child is asked who they like, while in perceived popularity each child is asked who the popular kids are.
b. Aggression is negatively correlated with sociometric popularity. Perceived popularity only increases (i.e., positively correlates) with aggression if kid being rated is also high on respect. I.e., effect of aggression on popularity is moderated by respect.
How does aggression and bullying among peers change from per-school (early childhood) to school-aged (middle childhood) children?
Direct physical aggression decrease and indirect forms of aggression (verbal and relational) increase. Also, aggressive behaviour is less frequently aimed at object possession and more directed at others.
What factor is more influential in overcoming the gender segregation trend in early peer friendships (in other words, what predicts the presence of other-gender friendships?)
Having other-gender friendships before the preschool period.
Discuss the differing effects of play with same-gender peers with regard to highly arousable boys and girls.
For highly arousable girls, play with same-gender peers predicted a decrease in behavioural problems, whereas for highly arousable boys, play with same gender peers predicted an increase in behavioural problems.
Peer rejection is known to be associated with what four externalizing problems?
Delinquency
Conduct disorder
Attentional difficulties
Substance abuse
As children progress through pre-school. What gender differences are observed in social network size?
Boys’ social networks increase in size, whereas girls’ social networks become smaller.
What three types of peer interactions did Piaget (1932) highlight as especially important for the development of higher levels of operational thinking?
Peer discourse
Conflict resolution
Negotiation
How does increased time spent in childcare, as opposed to brief nursery school interactions, affect the quality and development of a child’s social interactions?
Children who spend increased time in childcare compared to brief interactions in nursery school display interactions that are more sophisticated.
What is the sequence of 6 increasingly sophisticated forms of play described by Howes and Matheson?
Parallel play;
Parallel aware play;
Simple social play;
Complementary and reciprocal play;
Cooperative social prevent play;
Complex social pretend play
During which developmental period does gossip emerge? What function does it serve?
Gossip emerges during the school-aged period.

Gossip provides a means of sharing information about group dynamics and activities and of establishing positions in the group hierarchy.
***List 3 of the 6 dimensions along which friends have been found to be empirically similar.
Academic performance
Levels of aggression and deviance
Substance use
Antipathies
Relationships based on mutual disliking.
Homophily
The tendency of children to interact with others similar to them.
Corumination
Occurs when friends disclose their problems to one another, but then repeatedly go over and over the details of the problem and their feelings about the.
Symbolic interactionism
Theory focusing on the analysis of patterns of communication, interpretation, and adjustment between individuals.

Framework for understanding how individuals interact with each other and within society through the meanings of symbols.
What are 3 of the 6 basic social provisions that have been identified as critical features of friendship?
Attachment
Reliable alliance
Enhancement of worth
According to findings by Newcomb & Bagwell (1995), what are the 4 board categories in which friends differ from non-friends? Which categories show the largest differences?
Positive engagement
Conflict management
Task activity
Relationship properties

The categories of positive engagement and relationship properties showed the largest difference.
Based on Bukowski’s review, what are the general findings about the effects of friendships on developmental outcomes for children in high-risk family environments?
Having a friend or being in a high-quality friendship depends on one’s experiences within the family.

Thus, friendships may be critically important for the adjustment of children from less optimal family environments.

Peer relationships moderate effects of family experiences on various aspects of children’s adjustment.
What are the two essential qualities that measures of friendship must capture?
Level of reciprocity
Level of closeness
***What are 3 (of 4) differences Hartup and his colleagues reported for how preschool friends and non-friends resolve conflicts?
Make more use of negotiation and disengagement

Make relatively less use of winner-take-all strategies

Have equal resolutions
According to Bukowski, what are 3 defining features of friendships?
Reciprocated linking

Similarity

Coordination and responsivity
According to Kohlberg, what is the role of friendship in moral development?
The role of friendship in moral development was to create an attachment and that through this the child would develop a sense of a shared self with a friend that would lead to a heightened sensitivity of the friend’s perspective and needs.

The sensitivity would enhance one’s sense of obligation or responsibility to the friend’s welfare and promote motivation to maintain the friendship.
Discuss how the separate theories of Piaget and Kohlberg both see friendship as an important part of the moral development process.
Piaget saw moral development occurring as a function of co-construction between equals. He believed the interaction and mutual respect found in friendship would lead to processes of collaboration and cooperation necessary for the development of moral judgment.

Kohlberg: The role of friendship in moral development was to create an attachment and that through this the child would develop a sense of a shared self with a friend that would lead to a heightened sensitivity of the friend’s perspective and needs. The sensitivity would enhance one’s sense of obligation or responsibility to the friend’s welfare and promote motivation to maintain the friendship.
What are the 4 functions of friendship as presented by Bukowski?
Validation

Protection from risk factors

Moral development

Relation to adjustment
Distinguish between social skills and social competence.
Social skills are discrete behaviours. They lead children to solve social tasks or achieve social success.

Social competence is the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others overvtime and across situations.
Compare sibling vs. peer relationships in terms of symmetry, closeness, and voluntarieness.
Symmetry: Peer relations are more symmetrical than siblings

Closeness: In early childhood siblings are more close than friends; however, by adolescence friends are more intimate than siblings

Voluntarieness: Siblings are more permanent; whereas, most peer friendships are voluntary.
What is gender segregation and why does it occur?
Gender segregation is the separation of people based on their gender.

Gender segregation occurs due to adult encouragement; difference in play style; and differences in structure of relationships
***What seems to be a critical variable associated with whether social withdrawal leads to maladjustment?
NO ANSWER
***What are the two major extensions of Olsen’s work on relationships over the past research on friendships and antipathies?
NO ANSWER
***In the research on victimization, briefly discuss the two models that seem to explain loneliness versus social satisfaction.
Chronic stress model vs. life events model.

Loneliness seems to follow the life events model because it increased when the individual became a victim and did not decrease once victimization stopped.

Social satisfaction followed the chronic stress model.
What are 3 (of 5) things that caregivers can do to promote prosocial behaviors in early childhood?
Protection domain: parents can be appropriately responsive to their child’s own distress.

Reciprocity domain: parents can engage in mutually positive playful exchanges

Control domain: parents can exert authority when they want their children to engage in prosocial behavior

Guided learning domain: parents can talk to their children directly about social and emotional issues

Group participation domain: parents can expose their children to examples (models) of concern for others
Distinguish between prosocial behavior and altruism.
Altruism is an aspect of prosocial behavior that requires some sort of cost or self-sacrifice on the part of the altruist.

Developmental psychologists tend to prefer the term prosocial behavior because it can be difficult to determine whether a behavior is costly or not.
Describe the basic finding from Metz and Youniss (2005) about the effect of mandatory community service on prosocial attitudes.
They found that high school students who performed required community service reported that they would increase their community involvement after graduation compared to students who did not do any community service.

This was found for students who were initially disinclined to engage in community service. This finding indicates that even required community service can positively impact prosocial development.
Although prosocial behaviors are positive and enacted out of concern for others and their well-being, such actions might not always be well-received by the recipient. Why not and what difficulty does this cause for the socialization of prosocial behavior?
Being the object of consideration from others may elicit feelings of failure, inferiority, or dependency.

Expression of concern can also be embarrassing if unwanted attention is drawn to the recipient. Prosocial behavior may also put unwanted pressure on the recipient to reciprocate.

This is a problem for the socialization of prosocial behavior because it is then difficult to determine when prosocial behavior should be encouraged and when it should not be encouraged.
prosocial behavior
Prosocial behavior includes helping others, sharing, showing consideration and concern for others, defending others, and making restitution after a deviation.
altruism
Behavior that aids or benefits others that involves some kind of cost to the altruist. Altruism is prosocial behavior that requires self-sacrifice.
Costly-signaling theory
An evolutionary theory of altruism that attempts to explain actions that involve a great deal of self-sacrifice that are unlikely to be reciprocated. It suggests that large, conspicuous acts of altruism act as indicators that the altruist has resources and may make the altruist seem more attractive, dominant, and able to survive.
What are the two universal truths about gender, according to Leaper and Bigler?
The first universal truth is that gender is an important social category in every culture. The second universal truth is that gender group status is unequal in all cultures, specifically meaning that men have higher status than women.
In what three ways are gender schemas said to be multidimensional?
First, children develop gender schemas for the self and others. Second, gender schemas can also be applied to different domains (traits, activities, roles, etc.). Third, gender schemas have cognitive and affective components.
What are the three ways that children learn about gender according to Bandura’s social cognitive theory?
One way children learn about gender is through observation of male and female models.

A second way is through enactive experience, which refers to the process of learning gender norms through the reactions of others to gender-relevant behaviors.

The third way is simply through direct teaching by parents.
What are the basic gender differences in how peers develop body image?
Girl peer groups often discuss appearance issues like dieting while boys discuss muscle building.

There are also gender differences in teasing and harassment focused on body image. Girls tend to tease each other for being overweight while boys tease each other if they are either overweight or underweight.
What effects does the media have on adolescent gender development?
Boys are more likely to engage in violent media like video games and movies that are associated with aggressive behavior.

The media also effects adolescent body image by creating highly sexualized and idealized images of female beauty and a muscular ideal for males.

Exposure to these types of media is associated with negative body image in boys and girls.
How does the developmental intergroup theory proposed by Bigler and Liben (2007) lead to gender differences and stereotyping? What two qualities are most likely to promote stereotyping?
Developmental intergroup theory suggests that belonging to a group leads stereotyping the other group.

The two qualities of groups that lead to stereotyping are being perceptually discriminable and being explicitly labeled by others.
According to Friedman, Leaper, and Bigler (2007) are parents more likely to engage in explicit or implicit stereotyping, and in what way does gender influence a mother’s stereotyping behavior?
They found that implicit stereotyping was four times more likely than explicit stereotyping.

Mothers tend to emphasize counterstereotypical content with their daughters and tend to emphasize stereotypical content with their sons.
How does gender-related thinking and gender-typed behavior contribute to the development of negative behaviors and attitudes during cross-gender adolescent dating?
Adolescents may develop benevolent sexist attitudes (e.g., that girls need protection by boys).

Girls may also internalize sexist ideology and not recognize when they are victims of sexism. Verbal and physical sexual harassment also occurs in adolescent romantic relationships, with boys being more likely to initiate aggressive behavior.

Girls may come to expect demeaning behavior from boys as normal in dating relationships.
social-role theory (gender)
The idea that when family and occupational roles that are allocated on the basis of gender, boys and girls will engage in different behaviors. These roles shape the opportunities that boys and girls have during development.
cognitive developmental theory (gender)
An approach that focuses on changes that occur in children’s thinking about gender across different stages of development.

Children first categorize others based on gender and label their own gender at 2-3 years of age.

Children begin to understand that gender is stable over time and across situations at about 6 years of age.
developmental intergroup theory (gender)
Addresses how cognitive abilities interact with the environment to produce gender stereotyping and prejudice. Children stereotype based on gender because gender is very perceptually discriminable and it is explicitly labeled by others.
Androgyny
The incorporation of traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine traits into one’s self-concept (also called gender-role transcendence). It is made possible by cognitive, physical, and social changes typical in adolescence.
What is the distinction between aggression and bullying which is often overlooked?
Bullying is when a person is targeted repeatedly over time.
How does cyber bullying compare to traditional bullying in terms of frequency, age, and gender?
Cyberbullying is about as frequent as traditional bullying and the peak age (around 6th grade) is about the same. Girls are similar to boys in cyberaggression.
What does Schoffstall/Jackson’s research suggest about the relation of cyber-aggression to classroom peer social competence?
Cyberaggression and victimization contribute to peer social competence independently of traditional (face-to-face) aggression.
Describe the 3 groups of children based on conflict narratives. Generally, how did the peer social competence variables relate to these 3 groups?
Conflict managers tended to be high in sociability, average in aggression, low in victimization, and high in mindedness.

Avoiders were average in sociability, low in aggression, low in victimization, and low in mindedness. Sustainers were low in sociability, high in aggression, high in victimization, and low in mindedness.

Managers and avoiders were better off than sustainers in terms of social preference, number of mutual friends, loneliness, and peer optimism. Managers were better off in terms of popularity than sustainers.