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214 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are attitudes?
Schema, evaluation and behavior in relation to a social object.
What are the four functions of attitudes?
1) information - provides you with information that allows you to operate in the social world

2) social adjustment - you can adjust to social interactions

3) utilitarian - you can get good/bad things with some attitudes

4) ego defensive - an attitude can make you feel better
What is a value?
A large-scale attitude.
Where are attitudes 'locked in place'?
In the value system.
How do we get attitudes?
Socialization, predispositions, species-based behavior
What is socialization?
It highlights the fact that there are periods of time when we pick up a lot of attitudes
What sorts of predispositions do babies have regarding attitudes?
Temperment (biological) and energy levels (innate activity levels)
What sort of species-based behavior influences attitudes?
Immitation - monkey see, monkey do

Modelling - see something doing something and you do it too
What is social contagion?
When you see someone doing something and then you do it too.
What does Sherif's studies reveal?
The autokinetic effect - a light that moves "by itself" and everyone else in the lab responds in a similar manner
What is mere exposure?
The idea that you start with a neutral stimulus so others will have a positive attitude towards it with frequent exposure.
Why does mere exposure work?
Because we find familiarity pleasant and predictable.
What is conditioning?
When two stimuli are paired and produce positive associations.
What are the rules for attitude measurement in social psych?
1) have more than one item about a certain construct

2) questions should be short, simple, clear and unbiased
What is behavior a function of?
The sum of the attitudes a person holds plus subjective norms times the motivation to comply
What are subjective norms?
What other people think I should do.
What is behavioral intention?
What you want to do or thought you could do, but sometimes external forces interfere with your intentions.
What is internalization?
When I have an attitude that produces a behavior regardless of anyone else in the world.
What is compliance?
When a behavior is produced entirely through someone else wanting me to do something and I want to keep them happy.
What is an important principle to take into account with compliance?
Reward-cost force is your motivation to comply to others' desires because if you don't something will hurt you
If you want attitudes to predict behavior, what needs to happen?
There needs to be the equal levels of specificity in both
What can help develop personal attitudes?
Personal situations that have occurred tends to make more stable and consistent attitudes.
What makes an attitude stronger?
Specificity
Personal experience
Accessibility
How do attitudes change?
Change through someone else (conformity or persuasion) and people change their own behavior from the internal
What was the over-arching principle suggested by Gestalt psychologists regarding cognitive dissonance?
People are more psychologically satisfied with balance
What occurs in cognitive dissonance that causes us to change our attitudes?
The sense of balance suggested by Gestalt psychologists does not occur
What occurred in the 'insufficient justification' study on cognitive dissonance?
People engaged in a behavior that was really boring, and at the end, they were given the opportunity to lie to others about the task. The attitude was boring and the behavior was to tell others it was exciting.
What are the three reasons that people engaged in cognitive dissonance in the classical studies?
- insufficient justification
- effort justification
- insufficient punishment
What is an example of post-decisional dissonance?
The women with home appliances - two items you liked equally but then you become more comfortable with your decision to choose one of them because you point out all the bad things in all of the other options.
How did Gestalt psychologists originally explain cognitive dissonance?
They said it occurred because of the need for consistency.
What are other theories that can be used to explain cognitive dissonance?
- self perception theory
- self-presentation theory
How can we use Bem's self-perception theory to explain post-decisional dissonance?
I know myself better than anyone else and I wanted some aspect of a given situation beforehand
What is the underlying implication of Bem's self-perception theory in terms of post-decisional dissonance?
The implication that the attitude is unstable.
What is the self-presenation theory?
The desire for other people to see you in a positive light.
How does self-presentation relate to post-decisional dissonance?
You want to appear consistent to other people.
What implication goes along with the self-presentation theory?
The implication that the attitude itself has not changed.
How does self-esteem relate to cognitive dissonance?
You feel better about yourself if you are consistent in your decisions.
What occurs in persuasion?
People change your opinions.
What part of the behavioral intention formula can change over time?
subjective norms times motivation to comply
What is the boomerang effect?
If the extreme ends of an attitude are targeted, people will not be persuaded on attitude dimension.
What are the two latitudes in relation to persuasion?
rejection and acceptance
What does the latitude of acceptance highlight in terms of persuasion?
You need to target the region around where the original opinion is for where the persuasion should be directed.
What acronym is related to the social impact theory?
SIN
What are the individual meanings of SIN?
s: strength
i: immediacy
n: number
What does the social impact theory highlight?
the pressure to change one attitudes and behaviors
What does the immediacy section of the SIN theory higlight?
How close are people physically and psychologically to you
What happens when several people are targeted with the social impact theory?
there is a diffusion - amount of force is diffused across people
What group is targeted most in persuasion?
18-25 year olds because their attitudes are not as concrete and settled
What did the Yale study highlight in terms of persuasive cues?
- who is saying it? -likeable and creditable

- message: exposure and distinctiveness
What was a general principle generated from the Yale study about persuasion?
Targeting specific 'edges' of an argument.
Where did the motivational approach from Freud's work originate in in terms of persuasion?
- hook onto something and sell it

- life and death drives
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
The idea of hooking onto a human need to tell you something.
What are some examples of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
security: needs/motivation
What are the three characteristics for persuasion that try to invoke fear?
1) create the fear
2) convince you that it will happen
3) give you a clear way to handle the problem
What category of persuasion do the motivational principles of needs and emotions and the Yale stimulus characteristics fit into?
The peripheral approach.
What are some characteristics of the peripheral approach?
- on the edge of the message
- no logic or relevance to mesage
- cues are heuristics
- attitude susceptible to change again
What does the central approach emphasize?
logic, rationality, evidence
What does ELM stand for?
elaboration likelihood model
In central persuasion, is the ELM high or low?
high
Which form of persuasion is the 'soft sell'?
Peripherial
What occurs in central persuasion?
With giving evidence for a position, you address the attitude schema directly and develop another schema because you have thought about the situation more deeply

Schema becomes fuller and more elaborated, so they are harder to change
When is the central approach used?
When people are motivated to attend, when people understand your message
What do you need to be aware of in the central approach?
the boomerang effect
What groups do people sometimes target for persuasion as 'easy targets'?
children
women
low intelligence
Why are people not always persuaded?
1) they ignore it
2) subliminal messages do not always work
3) forewarning
4) inoculation
What are the two kinds of arguments?
One sided versus two sided
When are one-sided arguments usually used?
With childrens' shows as they are less critical as an audience
What do two-sided arguments tend to do?
Knock down the competitors
What study demonstrates the potential ineffectiveness of the subliminal messages?
Self persuasion tapes you listen to when you are sleeping...the first tape was meant to improve your memory and the second to improve your self-esteem but there were mixed results, as both groups reported better memory
What is the mechanism behind sibliminal messages?
Cognitive load - distract you so you can't hear my method
What is the danger of forewarning?
When people are warned they will be persuaded, they then have time to come up with counterarguments.
What is inoculation?
The idea that attacks on my thoughts will make my attitudes stronger.
What is the best way to persuade people if I have developed an argument?
Attack the middle of the issue first, rather than the extreme ends.
What are Chaldini's elements of persuasion?
1) pique effect
2) social validation
3) scarcity
4) foot in the door
5) low ball
6) door in the face
What is the pique effect?
You need to get someone's attention to read them and get past the strong avoidance, so you need to interrupt you and make you pay attention.
What is an underlying principle of the pique effect?
Schema disruption technique.
What is social validation?
the idea of conformity - you will do something if everyone else already is
What study demonstrates the pique effect?
17 cents study
What instance demonstrates social validation?
When people were hired to push shopping carts around the grocery store to encourage others to do the same.
What is the underlying idea of scarcity?
If something is scarce, you will see it as more valuable and you will be more likely to try and get one yourself.
Why might the scarcity effect work as an element of persuasion?
because of reactance
What is reactance?
People like to have control of something
What is the 'foot in the door' technique?
Get someone to say yes to something small and then something big
Why does the foot in the door technique work?
Cognitive consistency
What principle is the tuition increase at WFU demonstrating?
Low ball
What are some examples of the low ball effect?
airlines and car sales
What occurs in the low ball?
Someone agrees for something (x) but right at the last minute, you can not have it unless you give something else (y). However, because you settled for x, you are more likely to settle for y.
What is the door in the face technique?
The idea that if you ask for something big, someone says no, so you ask for something small, and the person agrees.
What principle underlines the door in the face?
reciprocity
How does reciprocity underline the door in the face?
Principle that if I give something to you, you are more likely to give something to me.
What is conformity?
When you go with someone else's norms, coordinating behavior which is not necessarily a good or a bad thing.
What are the different types of norms?
Descriptive and prescriptive
What are descriptive norms?
They tell you what people actually do
What are prescriptive norms?
They tell you what you should do, but you may not.
What are strong norm situations?
When there are clear, powerful norms and lots of them so people behave in a similar way
What are some examples of strong norm situations?
the library, religious events, class
What are weak norm situations?
When there are relatively few social norms, so that there is a high variation in social behavior.
What are some examples of weak social norm situations?
Mardi Gras, a barbeque, class finishing
What are the two main reasons why we conform?
Informative and normative
In what way does 'informative' influence why we conform?
We look towards others for information, especially in socially ambiguous situations.
Why does 'normative' influence why we conform?
We conform because we want people to look at us in a better light.
What was the first classical social psych experiment?
The autokinetic effect
What sort of pressure is highlighted in Asch's line study?
normative pressure
What was the effect of the confederates' influence in Asch's line study?
The participant yields to the group influence 37% of the time and gives into a distortion of his own judgment to avoid discomfort from the remainder of the group
What is the rule of four?
To create a group norm, you need four people to get conformity to occur steadily.
How does Asch's line study show the rule of four?
With up to four confederates, the amount of conformity from the participant steadily rose to 37%, however, even after 14 confederates, the conformity was only 37% of the time.
What aspect of the SIN model and social impact theory relates to conformity?
Diffusion
Why does diffusion relate to conformity?
Two people are enough for the group pressure to break down.
What kinds of social power do people have over one another?
expert
referent
legitimate
reward-cost
What is the expert influence in Asch's line study?
the confederates, because it seems like they have all of the expertise
What is the principle behind the 'referent' influence of social power?
You want people to like you, but it does not have to be a group.
What is the legitimate social power?
The society that I want to be a part of has the power and right.
What is the principle of reward-cost in terms of social power?
I conform because I get what I want and if I don't, I get hit with a cost.
What was the "point of no return" in the Milgram study?
150volts
What are the two competing forces in Milgram's study?
The health of the learner versus the authority of the teacher
What allowed the participants in the Milgram study to continue?
They refused to take responsibility for the learner - they blame the experimenter.
What does Milgram's study highlight in terms of inflicting pain on other people?
In the right social circumstance, we are all capable.
What is the significance of the immediacy aspect in the Milgram study?
When the learner was closer to the teacher, the conformity level drops.
When there is an increase in the number of confederates what would happen in the Milgram study?
Diffusion of impact, so the level of conformity would drop
What is the legitimate authority principle highlighted in Milgram's study?
The idea that if you had been where I was, you would have done it too - hard to see the situational forces at work.
What is social facilitation?
What you are doing can be changed by the presence of those around you.
What does Tripplett's bike racing study indicate?
When people are racing with others they cycle faster
What is the main interaction with social influence?
The type of task it was.
When the task is simple and familiar, does social influence increase or decrease?
Increase
When the task is complex and unfamiliar, does social influence increase or decrease?
Decrase
What are the theories relating to social facilitation?
Physiological (physical)
Distraction (cognitive)
Evaluation (social)
What is the physiological theory about social facilitation?
The presence of another person is physiologically arousing, which could help or interfere.
What is the method of distraction regarding social facilitation?
When something is going on (for instance, another person is there) makes you focus your attention so you can become too aware of the task at hand if it is an unfamiliar situation.
What is the idea of evaluation in social facilitation?
I am aroused because I am occupied with what the other person thinks.
What is a group?
A number of people who interact and have a common goal.
What is the idea of the risky shift?
The notion that an individual tends to make safe and secure decisions, whereas a group tends to make riskier decisions.
What is a violation of the risky shift idea?
When the individual makes a riskier choice than the group - for example in marriage.
What occurs in group polarization?
The group tends to move towards a more dominant position in that individuals become more extreme in that direction.
What occurs when people become more radical in their views?
Bringing more people together and chatting if they all have a similar viewpoint.
Why does group polarization work?
Social comparison
persuasive arguments
What is social comparison?
I want to fit in - normative pressure
What is the idea of persuasive arguments with group polarization?
Whatever is the dominant position is what people are more likely to discuss.
What is groupthink?
The most extreme form of group polarization in a highly cohesive group, as people want to fit in rather than pay attention to the information at hand.
What situation demonstrates the potential dangers of groupthink?
The NASA challenger mission.
What is an attitude?
A positive, negative or mixed reaction to a person, object or idea at expressed at some level of intensity in both positive and negative directions.
What are some dangers of pre-existing attitudes?
Close-minded and resistant to change.
What are the three ways in which attitudes are measured?
Self report, covert measures and IAT
What are covert measures?
indirect measures of attitudes that can not be controlled
What are some examples of covert measures?
observable behavior like facial expressions, tone of voice and body language

physiological measures like EMG
What is the downside to physiological measures?
They only tell us how intense an attitude is, they do not tell us if the attitude is positive or negative.
What is an EMG?
a facial electromygraph
What is an IAT?
Implicit association test
According to Abraham Tesser, how are attitudes formed?
Strong likes and dislikes are rooted in our genetic makeup
How did Tesser explain how attitudes are formed?
He used twin studies to show that attitudes are related to physical, cognitive, sensory skills, temperment and personality traits.
How do most attitudes form?
exposure to attitude objects, history of rewards/punishments and attitudes of our culture and relations
What is a classic study that demonstrates how attitudes form?
Bennington College study in Vermont where students became more liberal because of their relations with other free-thinking elders and friends
What study demonstrated that self-report measures do not always link with behavior?
A Chinese couple were taken to 250 restaurants in American and self-report measures said that 90% of places would not serve them but only one restaurant actually refused them service.
What is one important factor that determines if we can use attitudes to predict behavior?
The similarity between the attitudes measures and behavior - the Chinese study in America should have been more specific
What is the theory of planned behavior?
Attitudes towards a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person's actions
What are the four primary things that behavior is influenced by?
-Attitudes
-subjective norms
- when we perceive the situation as in our control
- attitudes just contribute to the intention, rather than the actual behavior because sometimes it is not/can not be performed
What are subjective norms?
Beliefs about what others think we should do
What are the three psychological factors that seem to consistently distinguish between weak and strong behaviors?
1) issues that directly affect our self-interest

2) related to deeply held religious, philsophical or political values

3) concern to close family and friends
What affects the strength of attitudes?
1) when people are well-informed

2) strength of attitude indicated by the amount of information and how it is obtained

3) strengthened by attacks against them

4) highly accessible to awareness
What are the two routes to persuasion?
Central and peripheral
What are three important factors in a persuasive speech?
The speaker, the message and the audience
What does route selection usually depend on in terms of persuasion?
The recipients ability and motivation to take the central route
What are the two important factors of the speaker?
Creditibility and likeability
What two characteristics do speakers need to have to be creditable?
competent and trustworthy
What two characteristics of speakers relate to likeability?
similarity and physical attractiveness
What study highlights the persuasion of similarity between the source and those listening?
at UC Santa Barbara studentes were more likely to believe a speech from a fellow UC studnet regarding the SATs
What is the sleeper effect?
A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source
What is the discounting cue hypothesis?
People immediately discount arguments made by noncredible communicators and over time we tend to remember the message but forget the source
What are some informational strategies used by communicators?
length of communicator and presentation order
What route to persuasion does positive feelings lead to?
the peripheral route
What is the need for cognition?
Personality trait that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities.
What are the three factors that influence the audience in persuasion?
need for cognition
self-monitoring
forewarning and resistance
What is psychological reactance?
People react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive.
What is insufficient justification?
people freely perform an attitude discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward
What is insufficient deterrence?
People refrain from engaging in desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened.
What are the four steps for arousal and reduction of dissonance?
1) you must be uncomfortable with your attitude-discrepent behavior

2) feeling of personal responsibility for the unpleasant outcomes of behavior

3) physiological arousal

4) person must make an attribution for that arousal to his own behavior
What are the three alternative routes to self-persuasion?
self perception theory
impression management theory
self-esteem theories
What behavior of Maine whales spread rapidly?
lobtail feeding
What are the two possible reasons for mimicry?
Social function in that being in synch with each other helps to develop smooth social interactions and people mimic others more when they are motivated to affiliate than when they are not
What are the two types of conformity?
Public and private
What occurs with public conformity?
compliance as a more superficial change in behavior because we want to curry favor with others
What occurs in private conformity?
True acceptance or conversion - change in our overt behavior and minds
With a majority count, what matter more, the actual number of people or how many distinct minds there are?
the number of distinct minds
What is the minority slowness effect?
Respondents who hold minority opinions are slower to respond to questions than those in the majority
What is the minority influence?
The process by which dissenters produce change within a group
What are idiosyncrasy credits?
Interpersonal credits that a person earns by following group norms
Why do minorities produced deeper and longer-lasting private conformity?
They cause others to rethink their original positions
How do majorities have power and control?
They bring stressful normative pressures on the individual
What is compliance?
When changes in behavior occur because of direct requests
What is the norm of reciprocity?
We treat others as they have treated us
Under what condition does the foot in the door technique work?
When people are motivated to stay consistent with their self-image
What principle is underlined by low-balling?
the psychology of commitment
When are people most vulnerable to low-balling?
When they are public locations
What is a situation which demonstrates the door in the face technique?
When college students were asked to volunteer with juvenile delinquents and then asked to take a two-hour trip to the zoo - 50% said yes to the zoo trip when first confronted with the counseling option
What are two primary reasons why the door in the face technique may work?
perceptual contrast
reciprocal concessions
What is the perceptual contrast in terms of the door in the face technique?
The second request seems much smaller
What is the idea of reciprocal consessions?
When an individual makes a smaller request, we feel compelled to follow
What is the "that's not all" technique?
People are led to think that the final price represents a reduction, so they are more likely to comply
What is obedience?
behavior change produced by the commands of authority
What is the social impact theory?
The idea that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy and the number of sources.
What are collectives?
People engage in common activities but they have minimal direct interaction with one another
What is the distraction-conflict theory?
The presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when those others distract us from the task and create attentional conflict
What is the collective effort model?
Individuals will exert more effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant and meaningful.
What is the sucker effect?
No one wants to be the sucker that does all of the work, so everyone withholds effort and the result is very poor group performance
Why do people join groups?
To accomplish things they can't accomplish as an individual and to gain a greater sense of personal and social identity
What are the two types of roles?
Instrumental and expressive
What are expressive roles?
To provide emotional support and maintain morale
How can we avoid groupthink?
- consult with outsiders
- encourage criticism
- subgroups with a second discussion meeting
What is the great person theory?
Exceptional indivdiduals rise up to determine the course of human events
What is emotional intelligence?
Ability to know how people are feeling and how to use the information that guides their own actions
How is leadership effectiveness determined?
By the personal characteristics of leaders and by the control afforded by the situation
What does good leadership require?
A match between an individual's personal style and the demands from a specific situation
What is normative leadership model?
Leadership effectiveness is determined by the amount of feedback and participation from workers
What is transactional leadership?
Gaining compliance and support from others with goal setting and the use of rewards
What is transformational leadership?
A leader who inspires followers to trascned their own needs in the interest of a common cause