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107 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Relative to the influence of younger siblings on older siblings, the influence of older siblings on younger siblings is generally
greater.
Which of the following best describes the way parent-parent relationships affect child-child (sibling) relationships?
Emotions within families are infectious across different relationships.
Which of the following diagrams best depicts the order of developmental importance of types of relationships from birth through early adulthood?
parents→peers→romantic
Obsessive thinking and talking about negative experiences that occurs jointly between two people is called
co-rumination.
Jocks, goths, and nerds match which level of peer relationships?
crowd
Approximately what proportion of teenagers report having had sexual intercourse by the end of high school?
one-half
In general, later puberty has _____________ consequences for boys and _____________ consequences for girls.
negative; positive
Romantic relationships in early adolescence generally serve the function of
fitting in.
So-called "light" sexual activity has been shown to
benefit adolescents at all ages.
Based on the neurological research, romantic love is
distinct from other types of positive emotion.
The most common pathway for antisocial behavior is the ____________________ trajectory.
C. adolescence-limited
Compared with the adolescence-limited trajectory, the causes of the life-course-persistent trajectory are more closely linked to
neurological factors.
Which type of continuity linked to long-term patterns of antisocial behavior can be described as a downhill snowball?
cumulative continuity
Youths account for _______ percent of all crimes committed in the United States each year.
50
Behaviors that violate the laws of conduct for people of any age are called
crime.
The ability to understand that others have different thoughts, preferences, and motivations is called
theory of mind.
Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between sex and gender?
Sex influences gender but not vice versa.
Differences between racial groups in intelligence test performance are generally due to
socioeconomic conditions.
Sexual attraction is mostly a matter of __________________; sexual behavior is mostly a matter of ________________.
biology; socialization
Identity development
is a lifelong process.
Which of the following is an area of high risk for emerging adults?
substance abuse
Jobs in emerging adulthood differ from jobs in adolescence in that
they are more closely related to adult careers.
Which of the following is/are true about the ways in which boundaries change between parents and their children in emerging adulthood?
Parents have less contact with their kids, less control over kids, know less about their activities
Which of the following is a major area of media impact in emerging adulthood?
body image
The proportion of U.S. teenagers who go on to some form of post–high school education is approximately
60 percent.
Adolescence
the period of life from the beginning stages of puberty, generally between ages ten and thirteen, through the late teens and early twenties
Erik Erikson suggested is _____ the major developmental task to be accomplished during adolescence
Part of this pattern of change and upheaval is the process of identity formation
Authoritative parenting has
the most positive developmental outcomes across most contexts
As Smetana et al. (2006) and Arnett (1999) observe, only a small proportion of adolescents experiences
significant parent-child conflict. However, relative to other developmental periods, there is an average increase in levels of conflict between parents and children, with the greatest levels of conflict generally occurring during middle adolescence (ages fourteen through seventeen).
autonomy
(independence from parents).
The greatest commonalities among sibling relationships in general are that, relative to other types of relationships, they tend to be
more emotionally intense, as marked by low inhibition and high levels of conflict; and especially intimate, as marked by sharing a great deal of common experiences.
Facotrs that influence sibling relationships
birth order; older siblings influence younger siblings to a greater degree. Sex and age differences, with greater conflict and closeness among same-sex and close-in-age siblings. Relations between parent figures and between parents and children have powerful influences on sibling relationships. Differential treatment by parents (different rules, responsibilities, and privileges) can cause problems when siblings perceive those differences in treatment as unfair. Developmental time period influences the nature of sibling relationships. Siblings who are both in childhood and similar in age are likely to share a substantial amount of time and common activities together. When they reach adolescence, however, siblings who are close in age may develop independent interests and friendships.
How do siblings affect one another
Modeling is one way in which siblings influence one another. Siblings witness one another being rewarded and punished (by parents, for example) for their successes and failures, then act accordingly. L =evels of conflict between siblings provide a foundation for developing social skills, such as sharing and problem solving, that are relevant to interacting with peers. Develop theory of mind earlier.
theory of mind
the ability to understand other people’s thoughts and motivations as different from their own
sibling deidentification
acquisition of somewhat independent identities or roles both within and outside the family.
Peer relationships differ from relationships among family members in that
they are chosen rather than conferred by birth.
Key features of peer relationships
At the simplest relational level, then, are dyads: interactions between two people. At the next broadest level of peer relationships, cliques are small groups of peers who share activities (do stuff together) and who regularly have direct interaction with one another. At the broadest level are crowds: stereotyped groups containing norms for attitudes and behaviors.
Peer relationships tend to become more
intimate over time, with increasing levels of self-disclosure and maturity. On average, friendships between adolescent girls involve greater levels of intimacy and self-disclosure than those between boys. Furthermore, girls and boys often differ in their peer interaction styles in general, with boys tending to focus more on assertion motives (competition) and girls tending to balance assertion motives with affiliation motives (maintaining friendships). It is noteworthy that when girls and boys interact with one another in peer relationships, girls are generally required to “play by boys’ rules,” because boys generally do not adapt to interaction with an opposite-sex peer by adapting to her additional motive.
Sorting,
the process by which peers establish friendships, cliques, and crowds, begins early in life, with proximity and exposure guiding friend selection; we befriend the ones we’re with the most.
Problematic patterns of peer relationships.
Two patterns of peer relationships: externalizing pattern, which is more common among boys, involves increasing levels of antisocial behaviors during childhood and adolescence leading to deviancy training, youths tend to increase the seriousness of their antisocial behaviors over time, particularly when adults fail to monitor them sufficiently. internalizing pattern, which is more common among girls, generally involves negative emotions, such as sadness, worry, or hopelessness, and withdrawal from peers. Leading to co-rumination, a joint coping style focused on obsessing over negative experiences and associated emotions
romantic relationships
“mutually acknowledged ongoing voluntary interactions, commonly marked by expressions of affection and perhaps current or anticipated sexual behavior”
sexual behaviors,
physical expressions of affection ranging from kissing to sexual intercourse, particularly later in adolescence. In romantic relationships.
__ percent of seventeen-year-olds report having had a recent romantic relationship, and ___ percent of high school seniors report having had sexual intercourse by the end of high school
70, 48
estimated that between _ and _ percent of teenaged girls become pregnant
5, 15
more than ____ new cases of sexually transmitted diseases each year among fifteen- to twenty-four-year-olds
nine million (Weinstock, Berman, & Cates, 2004).
Good relationships, which are characterized by
intimacy, support, and nurturing, are undoubtedly beneficial for development and facilitate growth on many levels.
However, bad relationships, which are characterized by
conflict, irritability, controlling behavior, and aggression, can inhibit development and contribute to emotional difficulties such as anxiety and depression.
Biological factors of romantic interests appear to correspond with the onset of
adrenarche, the period of heightened activity of the adrenal glands just prior to puberty.
romantic interests precede
gonadarche, the beginning of puberty, marked by increased estrogen activity for girls and increased testosterone activity for boys, which promotes maturation of sex organs (gonads).
Cultural factors of romantic interests
Culture, which is embedded in families, peer relationships, and media, influences norms for when romantic relationships occur as well as for what is acceptable within relationships. In addition, culture influences partner selection, with some cultures placing strong emphasis on partner similarity in religious, ethnic, and/or class background. In some cultures, very high levels of conflict between parents and children may ensue should an adolescent try to violate norms for partner selection. Finally, culture influences when sexual behavior begins.
In the United States, the average age of first marriage is
twenty-eight for men and twenty-six for women
Social factors of romantic interests
Over time, youths spend increasing amounts of time in mixed-sex peer groups. Partner selection is primarily a matter of status or popularity early on, and peer acceptance and rejection influence how well a given dating partner fits in with a youth’s crowd and clique. Later in adolescence, partner selection is more about the partner.
Attachment factors of romantic interests
attachment security in childhood is similar to issues of trust and security in adolescent romantic relationships. So early patterns of secure attachment are likely to lend themselves to more stable, emotionally healthy relationships in the teen years, whereas insecure attachment patterns are more likely to lead to less stable relationships, with varying degrees of mistrust, anxiety, aggression, discomfort with intimacy, etc. Attachment theorists suggest that continuity between early attachment and adolescent romantic attachment is a function of internal working models of relationships (cognitive schemas of what relationships are supposed to be like) formed in early childhood.
Cognitive factors of romantic interests
Cognitive interdependence (also known as identity interdependence) refers to the notion that individual identities overlap within important relationships such that a person’s representation of him- or herself will include a concept of “self-in-relationship”.
Love
According to Harry Harlow, “Love is a wondrous state, deep, tender, and rewarding”
Bartels and Zeki (2004) performed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans on mothers who viewed pictures of romantic partners, friends, their children, and acquaintances. The results indicated that
distinct brain circuitry became activated while viewing pictures of romantic partners, confirming that romantic love is indeed different from other types of love. In particular, brain areas associated with reward became more active, and areas associated with negative emotion and judgment became less active.
Moreover, Bartels and Zeki (2004) and other studies have identified the hormones ___ and ___ as being linked to romantic love
oxytocin, vasopressin
Sexual orientation
Research indicates that sexual orientation is actually a dimensional variable in which individuals have varying degrees of physical and romantic attraction toward members of the same versus the opposite sex. Where someone falls on this dimension appears to be largely a matter of biology, although choosing to act on this attraction is somewhat under voluntary control, and many self-identified gay men and lesbians do have sexual interactions with members of the opposite sex
Sexual behavior
research indicates that “light” sexual behavior, including hugging and kissing, appears to benefit teens of all ages. On the other hand, “heavy” sexual behavior, including intercourse and oral sex, tends to be associated with emotional and behavioral problems when it occurs in early adolescence. In late adolescence, however, the impact of heavy sexual behavior appears to be neutral, especially when considered in the context of stable, committed romantic relationships between teens.
Youths (or juveniles, in legal parlance) commit __ percent of all crimes in the United States
fifty
antisocial behavior describes
specific acts or a pattern of acts that violate social norms and expectations for acceptable behavior.
Delinquency denotes
rule violations of child laws of conduct, including running away, alcohol and tobacco consumption, or incorrigibility (failure to follow caregiver rules).
Crime refers to
acts that violate laws of conduct at any age, including assault, robbery, drinking and driving, murder, etc.
Physical aggression is marked by ___ while relational aggression is a more indirect form of aggression marked by harming others’ relationships
acts of violence or intimidation
Oppositional Defiant Disorder is a
youth disorder marked by a pattern of age-inappropriate, hostile, stubborn, and defiant behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2004).
Conduct Disorder is marked by
a pattern of more severe antisocial behaviors, and often includes physical aggression and criminal behavior.
Antisocial Personality Disorder is an
adult disorder defined by a pervasive pattern of disregard for or violation of others’ rights, as well as criminal activities.
Psychopathy refers to
personality characteristics linked to callous and unemotional traits. Psychopathy is not a disorder listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR, 2004), published by the American Psychiatric Association, which describes criteria for diagnosing mental disorders.
According to Moffitt (1993) and others, there are three classifiable trajectories of antisocial behavior.
– life-course persistent, adolescence-limited, and nonstarter
The life-course-persistent (LCP) group
represents approximately 5 to 10 percent of the population, begins displaying antisocial behavior in childhood and continues into adulthood.
The adolescence-limited (AL) group
which represents approximately 50 percent of the population, shows elevated antisocial behavior levels during adolescence that generally decline prior to adulthood.
The nonstarter (NS) group
approximately 5 to 10 percent of the population, simply never gets started
___ to ___ are unclassified as regards trajectories of antisocial behavior
thirty to forty
It is also important to note that the LCP trajectory is more common among boys, the AL trajectory is equally common among boys and girls, and the NS trajectory is somewhat more common for girls.
fact
antisocial behavior arises through one or more of several broad mechanisms. These mechanisms include
social learning (recall the Bobo Doll experiment from Lesson 1), operant conditioning (such as deviancy training or coercive family interactions), genetic and neurological causes, cognitions, and broader social-ecological processes.
Life-course-persistent youths
exhibit a number of inherited neurological deficits. In general, about 50 percent of the variation in antisocial behavior patterns can be attributed to genetic factors (a heritability estimate of 50 percent), with the other 50 percent accounted for by environmental factors.
The two most commonly exhibited neurological deficits among LCP youths are
low verbal intelligence and impulsivity.
Low verbal intelligence is thought to contribute to antisocial behavior by virtue of
preventing adequate communication and increasing frustration, which could then lead to aberrant ways of trying to communicate with other children.
Impulsivity is highly heritable and is linked with deficits in
executive functions, which include the ability to plan and enact a sequence of actions.
Additional neurological factors have also been identified as particularly common among LCP youths
These include a higher-than-average response to rewarding stimuli and a lower-than-average response to fear and punishment.
Contemporary continuity refers to
the presence of heritable behavior tendencies (such as aggression, moodiness, or impulsivity) that are present from birth and have consequences as an individual moves through the lifespan.
consequences of antisocial behavior accumulate over the lifespan of an individual in ways that perpetuate more antisocial behavior
(cumulative continuity).
Adolescence-limited trajectory.
lack the neurological deficits associated with the LCP trajectory. Moffitt (1993) argues that there is a maturity gap in industrialized countries that explains why youths in these countries are more likely than their peers in nonindustrialized countries to exhibit time-limited adolescent antisocial behavior. As AL youths enter into legal adult status, they may continue to engage in minor antisocial acts (see Nagin, Farrington, & Moffitt, 1995), but these acts dwindle as they become inconsistent with adult roles (for example, heavy drinking begins to have serious consequences for jobs and romantic relationships).
Nonstarter trajectory.
Like the early-onset, chronic pattern of antisocial behavior LCP youths exhibit, the pattern of not engaging in antisocial behavior at all is aberrant. Youths in the NS trajectory tend to be shy, inhibited, and/or anxious. NS youths may also exhibit odd or asocial patterns of social interactions. There are heritable neurological characteristics that accompany the NS trajectory. Specifically, shyness and anxiety are highly heritable characteristics, and are especially common among girls.
Self-concept,
one’s self-perception of having unique characteristics, is the broadest construct within the area of identity development (Schaeffer, 2009).
Self-esteem and social comparison
are used as terms
socialization is a process of
internalizing society into one’s self in the form of cognitive schemas (cognitive representations of social categories and associated expectations).
Gender.
Gender identity and the socialization of gender are perhaps the most comprehensively researched social categories within identity development.
Gender is a
social construct reflecting cultural beliefs about what it means to be a man versus a woman, or alternatively a boy versus a girl
Sex refers to
the biologically based characteristic of being male versus female (males have an X and a Y chromosome; females have two X chromosomes).
early in life, children are the ___ of gender socialization.
passive recipients Parents typically dress newborns differently based on their sex (note that there is no biological reason why boys must wear blue and girls pink)
children witness models of social behavior in their
mothers, fathers, siblings, and others (aunts/uncles, daycare providers)
Race is a
social category based on common physical characteristics, such as skin color or hair texture (Frable, 1997).
Ethnicity is a
social category based on shared cultural origins and traditions, such as language or religion. Contrary to popular belief, racial groupings are determined far more by social forces than by shared genetic ancestry.
Sexual orientation. Research on the development of sexual identity remains both
controversial and limited by social discretion regarding sexuality in general and homosexuality in particular.
Attraction appears to be largely
biologically determined and becomes increasingly noticeable to youths as they approach puberty.
____ processes strongly influence the expression of sexuality, including decisions about when to engage in sexual activity, what types to engage in, and whether to act on one’s sexual orientation.
socialization
Stage models of sexual orientation, like those Frable (1997) suggests, are likely appropriate to describe
sexual identity development. Thus, youths first identify which sex or sexes they are physically attracted to and note whether their attraction conforms to or violates social norms.
Social class
likely plays a large role in how children come to define themselves. However, social class is often so pervasive in youths’ lives that they themselves may not even recognize this element of identity; that is, they can’t see the forest for the trees.
Another interesting phenomenon associated with social class identity is the adoption of positive identities associated with
poverty. Among the most prominent examples are the development of identities associated with being “redneck,” particularly among rural white youths, and being “gangsta,” particularly among urban minority youths.
study of a developmental period between age eighteen (or the age of legal adult status) and the mid-twenties termed
emerging adulthood.
During emerging adulthood, peer relationships are changing in many ways.
greater self-selection into these relationships. With fewer external pressures to spend time with a particular type of friends, individuals can explore different types of people with whom to associate.
In the United States, most teens go on to some form of further education or some type of occupational training. According to 2007 U. S. Census Bureau data, __ percent of adults have attained a high school degree or more, __ percent have completed a bachelor's degree, and __ percent have completed some form of advanced/graduate degree (U. S. Census Bureau, 2007).
eighty five, 28, 10
Overall, _ percent of U. S. adults attend at least some college.
sixty
organizational climate
(the psychological impact of work on employees)
organizational culture
(expectations for work and social interactions among employees)
organizational climate and cultue
play a large role in identity and well-being. Put simply, jobs that are challenging and rewarding, and that support a positive work environment, benefit employees in many ways.