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140 Cards in this Set

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Social Cognition, what is it and what are the three basic principles used in processing information
How we think about ourselves and others

principles:
1) Conservatism: people are slow to change their views
2) Accessibility: what is already in our mind/comes to mind most easily has the strongest effect
3) Superficiality Vs Depth: The extent to which we think deeply about social phenomena can have a great impact on outcomes/behaviours
Social influence
How others influence our behaviors and self-concepts
Interpersonal or inter-group behaviour
How people interact with each other
Social Psychology
The study of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others. It studies the effects of social and cognitive processes on the ways in which people perceive, influence and relate to others and our personal understanding of the social world.
Descriptive norm
What we think others *ARE* doing
Injunctive norm
What do we think that others think we *SHOULD* do?
Social Norm
Generally accepted ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that people in a group agree on or endorse as right and proper.
What are the four characteristics of social psych?
1) its history: Only recent in the last 100 years - Triplett 1898 social fascilitation study was the first (found groups achieved higher than individuals) - Biggest influence was Nazi Germany.
2) Scientific Methods: its empirically driven not common sense - research found we often act contrary to common sense.
3) A focus on individuals (thoughts feelings and actions): A focus on individuals is how social psych differentiates itself.
4) An emphasis on the mutual effects of individual and the situational processes: Individuals and situations influence each other
Nazi Germany's influence on social psych
Nazi Germany has been attributed to being the significant start of social psych, when many escaped Germany to the USA researchers had access to them and wanted to understand what led to this happening and how did society allow it? This was where research on obedience, prejudice, conformity and influence really started
Individuals and Situations, why is this important and what are the two main ideas and what is the underlying Morale of this concept?
1) The social environment influences how individuals think about and act in the world
2) How individuals think and act influences the social environment

these two concepts are not mutually exclusive, the moral of this concept is that *we are changed by the world but we also can change it*
What are the two basic principles of social psych?
1) People construct their own social reality
2) social influences act on us continuously
What are the three basic motivations that underlie social behavior?
1) people strive for mastery: seek to understand, predict or perfect events so as to obtain reward

2) people seek affiliations with others: Connectedness

3) People tend to see themselves and any one/thing connected to them positively: Valuing me and mine
What is connectedness?
When people seek out / want to be connected to others, they want to be liked and valued by those whose opinions they respect.
What is a demand characteristic?
Cues in research settings that lead participants to make inferences about what researchers expect or desire and that therefore bias how the participants act
What is Validity in social psych research? What are the three types?
It is the way we test that our research provides trustworthy and reliable information about people.

1) Construct Validity: Does the collected info accurately measure the elements of a theory and are we measuring what we intended to measure?

2) Internal validity: Is the researchers theory the best explanation of the findings? can other factors explain them?

3) external validity: Does the info collected match the real world, is our study generalisable?
Methodology - What are the three main types of approaches? What are their typical validities?
1) researcher-driven: Where a researcher wants to test their own ideas and concepts (Experiments are usually used here eg surveys, testing etc). Usually high internal validity, varied construct validity and low external validity.

2) Phenomenon-driven: Where a researcher wants to find out what people think/do irrespective of their own opinions (field studies are typically used for this approach) Usually low internal validity, high construct and external validity.

3) Action Research: designed to change lives/world with researchers and participants equal contributions. Usually high construct validity but varied internal and external validity.
Who is Carl Rogers?
He founded the person-centred approach to psychology
What is self-knowledge?
An area of psychology that focuses on the collections of thoughts, emotions and behaviors that form who we know ourselves to be. It allows us to seek out situations that match our capabilities (ones we are good at, in order to boost our self-esteem)
What are the two components of self-knowledge?
1) the self-concept: which is a content based concept

2) Self-esteem: which is an evaluation based concept
The self-concept
the set of all an individuals beliefs about his or her personal qualities. we often use thoughts, feelings, observed personal behaviors and also peoples reactions to us to compile a self-concept. our self-concept is ever changing and growing as we get older
The self-concepts multiple selves theory
The self-concept is comprised of both social and personal identities, both of which are important parts of the self.
What is the self-perception theory
The theory that people make inferences about their personal characteristics on the basis of their overt behaviors when internal cues are weak or ambiguous
Self-esteem
The positive or negative evaluation of the self. Our level of self-esteem plays a crucial role in the adaptive function of the self-concept.
Social comparison theory
suggests that our self-concept is often significantly shaped by comparisons between ourselves and others and that we will seek out people we perceive to be 'similar' to us to use as a comparison.
What are Downward comparisons in respect to social comparisons
When we compare ourselves to people who we know are doing worse than us (worse grades, poorer, lonelier)
Actor-Observer differences in attribution
The tendency to attribute our own behaviors to outside and situational causes while seeing others acts as due to internal and inner characteristic causes.
What is an APPRAISAL in social psych?
It is an interpretation of an event including both the causes of an event and how that event affects the self.
What is Higgins (1988) self-discrepancy theory?
The difference between who we think we actually are and our self-guides influences our emotional well-being and ultimately our self esteem
Self-awareness
the process of directing our attention to our internal standards and heightening our awareness of whether we actually measure up to them or not
Self-expression
A motive for choosing behaviors that are intended to reflect and express the self concept
self-presentation
A motive for choosing behaviors intended to create in observers a desired impression of the self
Self-monitoring, what are the two levels of self-monitoring?
A personality characteristic defined as the degree to which people are sensitive to the demands of social situations and shape their behaviors accordingly.

1) high self-monitors: change and shape their behavior based on the social setting

2) low self-monitors: behave consistently irrespective of social setting (usually causes problems)
What are coping strategies? What are the two types of responses to threats to self?
efforts undertaken to reduce negative consequences of self-threatening events.

1) Emotion-focused coping: trying to alleviate the negative *emotions*

2) Problem-focused coping: trying to reduce the impact of the negative *event*
What is emotion-focused coping? what are the strategies people use
It is trying to alleviate negative emotions. the strategies people use are to *escape the situation (drinking, drugs etc). *attempt to ignore the threat. *reduce the importance of the threat to the self. *Using self expression (getting the emotions out, talking, writing, singing, drawing etc)
What is problem-focused coping? What are the strategies people use
Is trying to reduce the impact of the negative event.
the strategies people use are to *redefine the threat (the problem is with them not me). * Make excuses (offer reasons for failure). *Self-handicap if aware of impending threat (Offer excuses for potential failure prior so failure can be attributed to that after, this can even increase self-esteem if failure doesn't occur). * Take control of what you can in the situation (reduce threat where you can control it). * Change the self to alleviate the threat.
What is Self-categorization theory and how is it linked to self identity theory?
Self-categorization is the process of seeing oneself as a member of a particular group, it is flexible (eg, i am female, in another situation, I am a student).

Social Identity theory: People seek to derive positive self-esteem from their group memberships and how they feel about those group memberships. It is also suggested they alter their behaviour to fit in with the perceived 'members' morals, behaviors and thoughts.
What is self-complexity?
The number of different ways in which we see ourselves across groups, events and social situations
How can we construct a coherent sense of self within our self-concepts multiple selves?
There are four strategies to achieve this:
1) Live in the current situation: resist bringing different selves into comparison, only use relevant self-concept

2) Selective memory: Construct an autobiography that focuses on consistent information across selves only

3) Attribute differences in behaviour to situations: feel our 'true self' is consistent but can adapt to situations: "actor-observer differences in attribution"

4) Focus on a few key traits: the consistent ones across situations and those that make us distinguishable
What is the above average effect? (self-enhancing bias)
When answering questions about ourselves and asked to evaluate ourselves, we tend to evaluate our self quite positively (or gather / interpret information about our self that leads to overly positive evaluation), in order to feel better about who we are and what we respresent so we will typically state we are above average, this concept is known as the above average effect
Is a high self esteem always good? If not what are some of the negatives associated with high self esteem?
No high self-esteem is not always good, Baumeister et al (2003) found there are 3 faces of self-esteem
1) Positive self regard: Awareness of ones good qualities

However:
he also found that people with high self-esteem in general showed more favoritism to in-groups which led to greater prejudice of out-groups. He found specifically:

2) Narcissistic: loving oneself - feeling special, unique, entitled to admiration and privilege: he found that these people were associated with higher rates of cheating and bullying

3) Defensive: Fooling oneself about their good points: he found that these people were more likely to become over aggressive due to being passionate about the defense of the self
What are some positives about high-self esteem?
People are more resilient to threats of the self and are able to bounce back more readily. They persist after failure more often than those with low self esteem
What effect does BIRG (Bask in reflected glory) have on our sense of self-esteem? How?
It boosts our self-esteem by allowing us to identify ourselves with the accomplishments or good qualities of fellow in-group members
what is a cognitive representation? what is association?
Cog Rep: A body of knowledge that an individual has stored in memory, associations and links between ideas in the brain - we use these to form impressions of people

Association: a link between two or more cognitive representations
In reference to perception and attention, what is salience?
The ability of a cue to attract attention in its given context (E.g: a man wearing a three piece suit pushing a toddler in a pram)
Accessibility and priming..what are they and how are they related? What is the activation of impressions concept?
Accessibility is the processing principle that covers individuals' and groups' ability and ease of which something can be brought to the mind. Repeatedly thinking about a concept makes is more accessible.

Priming is the activation of a cognitive representation to increase its accessibility and thus the likelihood that it will be used

Activation of impression is the observation or reflection about one trait results in the other coming to mind - this is more frequent for highly accessible concepts where strong associations have been linked.
The social context of interpretation
Our understanding of emotional expression is influenced by the social context (e.g photo of Andy Roddicks win at 2003 Aus open, in original photo minus context we perceive his emotion to be anger, however upon receiving the context of his win we perceive it to be victory)
What are the three sources of first impressions?
1) Physical features: beauty facial features, clothing etc

2) Non-verbal communication: eye-contact, facial expressions, body language - are these positive or negative

3) Overt behavior: talking vs listening, introverted Vs extraverted
What is a considered impression and how is it different to a first impression?
Our first impressions tend to be automatic. However, considered impressions require greater effort and concentration to process information more thoroughly about a person (e.g: why did that person react that way when we first met them, maybe they were nervous which i interpreted as snobby?) - these impressions due to their high cognitive load require motivation and ability / interest.

Considered impressions can be used to discount first impressions or to integrate them
What are the four reasons impressions tend to resist change?
1) Primacy effect: things we learn first tend to alter how we interpret later information

2) Perseverance effect: We use initial impressions even when we later find out they were based on false info

3) Biased hypothesis testing: we look for info that confirms our initial impression rather than looking for inconsistent info

4) Self-fulfilling prophecy: our behavior towards others causes them to behave in the way we expect them to based on our opinions of them
What is the Duchenne smile study?
It found that people are able to tell when a smile is faked and tend to be less trusting of the individual (interesting finding was people tended to trust people with botox less as their smiles never meet the 'natural/real' smile requirements)
describe the difference between Correspondent inference and correspondence bias
C Inference: The process of characterizing someone as having personality traits that correspond to their observed behaviour

C Bias: the tendency to infer an actors personal characteristics from observed behaviors even when the inference is unjustified because other causes exist (such as they were playing a role in movie not themselves!)
Processing, what is superficial and systematic, describe
Superficial: relying on accessible info to make inferences or judgments while expending little effort in processing

Systematic: giving thorough effortful consideration to a wide range of information relevant to a judgement
What is causal attribution
a judgement about the cause of a behaviour or event
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?
The process by which one person's expectations become reality by eliciting behaviors that confirm the expectation (eg, believing another person's a *****, so you treat them with hostility and self-righteousness, in return they act in a way you would perceive as bitchy, when in fact they are simply mirroring your behavior)
What is the self-discrepancy theory?
The theory that people evaluate themselves against internal "ideal" and "ought" standards, producing specific emotional consequences.
What is the out-group homogeneity effect?
The tendency to see the out-group as more homogeneous and less diverse than the in-group
What is individual mobility
The strategy of individual escape, either physical or psychological, from a stigmatized group
Social creativity and social change
S Creativity: the strategy of introducing and emphasizing new dimensions of social comparison, on which a negatively regarded group can see itself as superior

S Change: the strategy of improving the overall societal situation of a stigmatized group
What is an attitude? what are the elements of an attitude?
A cognitive representation that summarizes an individuals evaluation of themselves, other people, groups, things, actions, objects and issues
elements:
* Cognitive representation - mental states (thoughts, feelings)
*Evaluation - direction (positive or negative) and Intensity (varying degrees)
* Attitude object - an external target (person, group, thing etc)
What are the functions of attitudes?
there are two

1) Mastery of environment - helps us understand and operate in our world

2) Expressing connections - a way to show our similarities and differences in order to form connections
How do we measure attitudes? what are the five methods
1) Paired comparisons: Compare pairs of stimuli on attitude dimension - 'out of the following which do you like more'
2) Guttman scaling: Construct items reflecting increasing intensity
3) Likert scale: create items to reflect favorable or unfavorable views
4) Semantic differentials: Use predetermined evaluative dimensions and apply to attitude object - 'rate the following on a scale of beautiful - ugly'
5) Implicit association test: used to measure attitudes outside of conscious awareness/control
persuasion
the process of forming, strengthening, or changing attitudes by communication
What are the three building blocks (components) of attitude
Cognitive information: the facts and belief about it

Affective information: the feelings and emotions that object arouses

Behavioral information: knowledge about people's past, present or future interactions with the attitude object
What is a persuasion heuristic, what are the two types?
Association of a cue that is positively or negatively evaluated with the attitude object, allowing the attitude object to be evaluated without much thought and quickly.
There are two types:
*systematic processing (Central route) : Thoughtful considerations of the argument
*superficial processing (Peripheral): quick, un-evaluated decisions
What are the eight persuasion heuristics in social psychology
1) Emotions (direct and indirect): if i feel good i must like it
2) Familiarity: peoples tendency to prefer objects to which they have been more frequently exposed (mere exposure effect)
3) Attractiveness: we tend to agree with those we like
4) Expertise: agreeing with those who know best
5) Message length: the longer the message the stronger the argument
6) consistency: others attitudes guide our own
7) scarcity: if its in high demand and running out we want it more
8) Consensus: norms
what are the four steps involved in processing message content systematically
1) attending to the message: attention must be drawn firstly
2) Comprehending the message: Keep it simple so audience doesnt miss the point
3) Reacting to message content: either positive reaction or negative
4) Accepting the advocated position: if message stimulated positive reactions it will be persuasive.
Elaboration
The generation of favourable or unfavourable reactions to the content of a persuasive appeal
What is the foot-in-door technique
a technique for increasing compliance with a large request by first asking for a small request
What is the door-in-face technique?
a technique in which the influencer makes an initial request so large that it will definitely be rejected, and then follows it with a smaller request that looks more like a concession, making it more likely that the other person will concede in turn
What is Cognitive Dissonance?
An unpleasant state caused by people's awareness of inconsistency among important beliefs, attitudes, or actions. It often occurs when behaviour conflicts with a prior attitude (e.g: you believe yourself to be an honest person but you then cheat on an exam)
What are the four steps required to produce dissonance and for that dissonance to produce attitude change?
1) The individual must perceive the action as inconsistent
2) The individual must take personal responsibility for the action
3) the individual must experience uncomfortable physiological arousal
4) The individual must attribute the arousal to the inconsistency between attitude and action
What are some of the attitude changes that occur when people try to justify acting in an attitude-inconsistent way?
1) I suffered for it, so i like it (E.g: abusive relationships where the abused becomes more committed, I suffered yet stayed, i wouldn't stay if i didn't like the relationship)
2) Of course i was right (people remove dissonance by convincing themselves it was the right thing to do)
What is a norm?
A generally accepted way of thinking, feeling or behaving that people in a group agree is right and proper - standardized ways of understanding and acting in the world.
What are the two activation's of social norms?
1) Explicit reminders: Commands, requests, signs (e.g: no talking in the library signs)

2) Subtle cues: Observing the environment and others behaviors ( E.g: no one is talking in the library)
What are the two types of norm conformity?
1) private: we personally accept that group norms are correct and appropriate and accept that their view of reality is more likely

2) Public: act consistently with groups norms, but not personally accepted (more compliance than conformity) - often done to escape ridicule or rejection
What are the functions of norms?
For intellective tasks (where there is a correct solution) - Mastery is the most important function

For value-laden tasts (involving expressing a person's identity) - Connectedness is the most important function
What is the false consensus effect?
When people falsely believe that their own views are shared by others
What is group-think? who founded the concept?
Janis (1972) stated that group-think is group decision making that is impaired by the drive to reach consensus regardless of how the consensus is formed. It is most likely to occur where the task is perceived to be extremely difficult with intense time pressures
Reference group
Those people accepted as an appropriate source of info for a judgement because they share the attributes relevant for making that judgement
Group polarization
the process by which a groups initial average position becomes more extreme following group interaction
Norms and deindividualisation
The psychological state in which group or social identity completely dominates personal or individual identity so that group norms become maximally accessible
Norm of social reciprocity
the shared view that people are obligated to return to others the goods and services they have offered to us
Norm of social commitment
the shared view that people are required to honor their agreements and obligations
What is the low-ball technique?
A technique where there influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the cost of honoring the commitment - people tend to stick to the deal even though it has changed for the worse
Milgram experiments
really showed the extent of social influences on individuals behaviors, especially those of a perceived authority figure - the experiment is the infamous one when participants were instructed to give electric shocks for wrong answers (to someone they thought was hooked up to the live wire - but weren't really) the results were startling showing 65% of participants administered the final fatal shock when instructed to do so. EVEN KNOWING IT WOULD KILL THEM (in their mind it was real and the test wasn't on them)
Norm of obedience to authority
The shared view that people should obey those with legitimate authority (e.g: Nazi Germany, Milgrams experiments etc..)
What is the concept of reactance?
The motive to protect or restore a threatened sense of behavioral freedom
what is the theory of planned behavior?
The theory that attitudes, social norms, and perceived control combine to influence behavior
Majority views in groups VS minority views
tend to be more widely discussed as they are more numerous and presented by a number different people, they tend to be presented first and are more strongly argued for as people feel a sense of comfort and dedication to an opinion when others feel the same way

unfortunately minority views tend to be more likely to be undermined - they are more likely to change their opinions to fit in with the groups ideas due to social identity theory and greater trust in group opinions / conformity.
How can minority groups / opinions influence group norms and behaviors?
* they must first establish themselves as a credible in-group member - focus on commonalities between them and majority members before making a case for a differing opinion.
*Maintain a consistent argument, dont falter or change it or it seems less credible
*encourage systematic processing - superficial will simply fall in line with majority consensus
what are two behavioural models of influence using norms
1) direct (superficial)

2) indirect (systematic)
What is prejudice?
A positive or negative evaluation of a social group and its members - basically it is out-group discrimination and in-group 'protection' and favoritism
What is a stereotype?
A generalized social, cognitive representation or impression of a social group that people form by associating particular characteristics and emotions with the group. These are relatively enduring beliefs that tend to 'inform' perceptions "E.g: out-group homogeneity" they are usually seen as important bases for prejudice.
What is a social group? what is social categorization?
a social group is two or more people who share some common characteristics that is socially meaningful for themselves or for others

Social categorization is the process of identifying individual people as members of a social group because they share certain features that are typical of that group.
What is the contact hypothesis and why is it important?
The theory that suggests that certain types of contact between members of hostile groups will reduce stereotyping and prejudice. It is important for Waring groups and for people who simply cannot get past their prejudices to see others in a different light - interesting uses in restorative justice
What is a subtype of a social group?
a narrower and more specific social group within a broad social group (E.g: a housewife is a subtype of women)
What is system justification theory?
Psychological processes contributing to the preservation of existing social arrangements even at the expense of personal and group interest
What are the two behaviors typically associated with negative (harmful) out-groups stereotyping by in-group members?
* Active behaviors: Overt attempts to affect the group (Harm, harassment, bullying)
* Passive behaviors: Indirect behavior that is still consequential for out-group (exclusion, ignorance, neglect)
The minimal group studies
It sought to identify the minimal conditions that would lead members of one group to discriminate against an out-group. People were randomly assigned to groups who had no previous history, no meaning and no conflict prior to study, there were no potential gains from the groups.
The participants were then asked to allocate rewards to people who were either a member of one's own in-group or the out-group. - the school boys rewarded in-group members sig more than out-group members (in-group favoritism)

This study showed despite any real cause of in-group / out-group discrimination - still very evident! Merely categorizing people was enough to produce behaviors consistent with prejudice despite any real reasoning other than in-group out-group think.
Racism, what are the two types, describe
*Old fashioned racism: Overt - openly expressing negative evaluations of the group

*Modern racism: Objection to subtle unfair treatment "aboriginals want more than everyone else" Unfair advantage to minority groups "aboriginal benefits are unfair"
Two types of sexist prejudice
1) Hostile: negative view of women

2) Benevolent: Stereotypes them as having characteristics that restrict their roles but seen positively: Caring and moral :"women should be cherished and protected by men"
What is the glass ceiling and glass cliff??
Modern sexism concepts:
* Glass ceiling: even once in business roles women seen as not being as suited to leadership roles as men (can only go so far - can never really reach the top even if they are close enough to see it)
* Glass cliff: Women tend to only be able to attain leadership roles when the company is in crisis and performance is declining so women seen as the other option to fix it over men - however there is still a huge chance of failing as company already in crisis - this maintains the norm women aren't suited to leadership roles as companies failure attributed to their role as leader
Reducing prejudice - two concepts
1) Color-blindness = treat EVERYONE the same

2) Multiculturalism = embrace our differences
Social facilitation
The presence of others has the ability to
* Increase performance: in some people E.g: children wound fishing line onto reels faster in groups
* Decrease performance: E.g: class presentations
Distraction - conflict theory
Low cognitive load tasks allow us to use the rest of our attention to focus on other tasks (eg: having people present) however, a new task that is unfamiliar requires a high cognitive load and means the presence of others is simply a distraction
What are the five stages of group development
1) forming: the bringing together of individuals into a group
2) storming: conflict stage - members claim / are assigned roles - causing disagreements
3) norming: members identify with the group and standards start to emerge
4) performing: members focus on the group task
5 adjourning: group disbands
Group socialisation model - what happens when a new member joins a preformed group?
5 phases:

1) Investigation: investigate potential group and members if they fit ends with entry into the group
2) socialisation: educate new members of expectations and norms - if successful gains group acceptance
3) Maintenance: negotiate roles of group to incorporate new comer
4) Resocialisation: if divergence occurs new roles are negotiated - if unsuccessful exit group
5) Remembrance: remember the time of group membership or attempt to erase it from memory
Group performance on tasks
1) additive tasks: all group members efforts combine to achieve task
2) conjunctive tasks: all members have an integral role
3) Disjunctive tasks: tasks that involve generating alternatives and selecting the best
What are two issues in maintaining group performance?
1) motivation: when many people involved in a task some people will slack off - called social loafing

2) Co-ordination: co-ordinating member to facilitate individual and group performance
what are four characteristics associated with leaders of groups?
1) Drive - the need for achievement
2) Self-confidence - need to know they can do it
3) Creativity
4) motivation to be a leader - need to act like one to be one
Transformational leadership components
four components:
1) Idealised influence: Create confidence, trust and foster shared identity and values
2) Inspirational motivation: set challenges and frame them positively
3) Intellectual stimulation: involve people in the process of change
4) Individualised consideration: attend to group members needs and abilities
What are some problems with transformational leadership?
Predictive power: in real time it is hard to know who will be known as visionaries and who will be known as failures.
Communication in groups - what are communication networks?
They can either be formal (defined relationships between people) or informal (unofficial patterns of communication). They are either centralised (very important position in the network) or decentralised (many people share he knowledge and the work).
Task interdependence; social interdependence
Task : reliance on other members of a group for mastery of material outcomes that arise from the group's task

Social: reliance on other members of the group for feelings of connectedness, social and emotional rewards, and a positive social identity
Why interaction causes liking?
1) interaction with others helps us master our world
2) interacting with others helps us feel connected
3) familiar others seem likable
why do we like similar others
Birds of a feather flock together:

1) we tend to interact with people who are similar to us - shared interest provides opportunity for interaction - interaction leads to liking
2) we assume that similar others will like us in return
3) similar others validate our beliefs and attitudes
What is an exchange relationship and what is a communal relationship
exchange: A relationship where people exchange rewards in order to receive benefits in return

Communal: a relationship where people reward their partner out of direct concern and to show caring
what is a close relationship and what is interdependence, are they related?
Yes they are related, a close relationship is one that involves strong and frequent interdependence in many aspects of your life. Interdependence is a situation in which each persons thoughts, emotions, and behaviors influence those of other people
Intimacy and commitment
intimacy: a close positive emotional bond that includes understanding and support. It also includes physical attributes including but not limited to sexual interactions.

Commitment: the combined forces that hold the partners together in an enduring relationship
what is an attachment style? what are the four types of attachment?
Style: peoples basic orientation towards others in close relationships.
Types:
Secure
preoccupied
avoidant
fearful
social support
what is it?
emotional and physical coping resources provided by other people
What are the physical sources of attraction?
* Olfaction: scent: in women scent can indicate fertility but in both men and women scent can indicate differences in immune system - people with differing qualities find each others scent attractive (evolutionary process to reproduce stronger immune systems in offspring)
*Waist-to-hip ratio - indicates less problems with childbirth - biologically programmed to help avoid birthing problems
* facial symmetry - it indicates the person hasnt been affected by parasites (parasites in the womb affect a babies facial symmetry so we are biologically programmed to avoid people with poor facial symmetry as it can indicate health problems - not good for passing on genes)
What are some social influences on attraction?
*proximity: we tend to like people we interact with frequently - related to the mere exposure effect
* Similarity: we like people who are similar to us, attitudes morals, etc
Rusbults commitment model consists of four factors that predict relationship stability and commitment over time, what are they?
1) total reward
2) potential reward
3) investments
4) costs of leaving the relationship
what is altruism, what is egoism?
Altruism: Behavior intended to help someone else without any prospect of personal rewards for the helper

Egoism: Behavior motivated by the desire to obtain personal rewards
What is a social dilemma?
A form of interdependence in which the most rewarding action for each individual will, if chosen by all individuals, produce a negative outcome for the entire group
Helping behavior can be what (two types)
1) Spontaneous (in the moment, see someone struggling so give them some food)

2) Planned (volunteering etc..)
What is the bystander effect (diffusion of responsibility) ?
the presence of others who can act reduces each person's feelings of obligation to act
When will people help?
1) in unambiguous situations: if a situation is ambiguous people interpret behavior in ways that doesnt require their assistance.
2) when someone appears to deserve help: People from poorer countries tend to be seen to deserve help more than rich countries in times of need
3) when another person acts: this removes ambiguity from the situation and provides a model for the appropriate response for others to copy
4) when they share a social identity with the victim: if victim is someone we can relate to we tend to help more readily e.g: injured person is carrying a "Murdoch" folder - a Murdoch student is more likely to respond than a UWA student
*theories of helping* - Negative-state relief model
We are motivated to relieve experiences of negative emotional states - in order to do that we must help the situation that is causing it - this is an egoistic behavior
*theories of helping* - Empathy-altruism model
People more likely to help when they feel personal distress about the situation and feel empathetic to those who are involved
*theories of helping* - Social identity model of helping
Three social elements which lead groups to help others in need:
1) Social identity inclusion - they should be part of the in-group
2) Social identity norms - group norms should prescribe helping those in need
3) Social identity interests- this will be harmful to our people mind frame
What types of people volunteer?
Individual characteristics:
* those who are higher educated: they have a heightened awareness of the problems
*those with a moderate amount of free time: but not a lot of free time (unemployed have very low volunteer rates)
*People with higher more prestigious jobs / income: lawyers, doctors etc
Conflict and aggression
Conflict: a perceived incompatibility of goals between two or more parties

Aggression: Behavior intended to harm someone else
What are the factors that can limit peoples capacities to process situations deeply and to avoid progressing to outbursts of aggression?
1) emotional arousal: strong emotions tend to impede on our ability to think rationally and often accompany conflict
2) Alcohol use: diminishes your ability to think systematically and heightens the chance of you acting impulsively
3)time pressures: when we are forced to make a decision quickly our initial tendency to aggress may win out more often than not
4) individual differences: some people are simply better at avoiding aggression!
Realistic conflict theory
The theory that intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce but valued material resources
Relative deprivation theory
The theory that feelings of discontent arise from the belief that other individuals or other groups are better off - sometimes (perceived to be) unfairly so.
Negotiation
the process by which parties in conflict communicate and influence each other to reach agreement
What are the two types of aggression?
1) instrumental: planned act that is intended to achieve a desired outcome

2) Hostile: a spontaneous aggressive act often in response to provocation
Triggers to hostile aggression: the frustration aggression model
blocking of an important or desired goal leads to frustration which leads to aggression (common criminology theory)