Soc Of Intimate Relationships #1

Front 1

What is the difference between descriptive and evaluative disclosure?

Back 1

- Descriptive self disclosures: private facts - what I do/did

- Evaluative self disclosures: personal thoughts or feelings - who I am/ how I feel

Front 2

Why is evaluative disclosure important a key component to intimate relationships?

Back 2

Evaluative disclosure describes who we are and how we feel. If we can't share who we are as individuals with our partner we don't truly have intimacy.

Front 3

What are the two reasons for why trust is a critical element of intimate relationships?

Back 3

1. Expectatiolns for non-disclosures to others (violated by affairs)

2. Expectations for long-term reciprocity (on-going exchange of things of value)

Front 4

What are two reasons for why commitment is a critical element of intimate relationships?

Back 4

1. Expectations for duration

2. Expectations for on-going investments

Front 5

What is meant by “mutuality” as it relates to intimate relationships (2 aspects)?

Back 5

1. Mutuality is when a person describes their self-definition in terms of the other ( I am a wife, I am a lover, etc).

2. Use of the couple definition (not "I" or "you" but "us" and "we")

Front 6

How does having a quality intimate relationship impact human beings?

Back 6

- Mortality: live longer

- Morbidity: live/be healthier

- Psychological Well-Being: have higher life satisfaction

Front 7

What are the two interrelated processes that are at the core of the evolutionary perspective?

Back 7

1. natural selection

2. differential reproduction

Front 8

What is the principle of “natural selection”?

Back 8

Only those who are suited to their environment will survive and those who lack essential traits will perish. Selection is thus more of an elimination or attrition process.

Front 9

What is the principle of “differential reproduction”?

Back 9

Survival is important because it increases the likelihood of reproduction and thus the survival of genetic material through the generations.

Front 10

How do natural selection and differential reproduction explain genetic bases for relationship behaviors?

Back 10

- Natural selection: affects the availability of appropriate partners

- Differential reproduction: Traits that enhance attractiveness and ability to secure "fit" mates will increase likelihood of reproduction and fitness of offspring.

Front 11

What are three “predispositions” important for understanding relationship behavior that are shaped by evolution?

Back 11

1. Predispositions for affiliation

2. Predispositions to form secure attachments

3. Predisposition for altruism

Front 12

How does the need for affiliation enhance species survival?

Back 12

- decreased exposure to and protection from predators

- location and exploitation of food sources

- Mutual grooming and care-taking

- Find a suitable mate for reproduction

Front 13

Hoes does the need to form attachments enhance species survival?

Back 13

- Parental responsiveness

- Offspring exploration and learning

Front 14

How does the need for altruism enhance species survival?

Back 14

- Survival of the kinship group through self-sacrifice

- Foundation of obligation for later assistance

- Reciprocal altruism

Front 15

What are the two major social psychological perspectives on why intimate relationships are important?

Back 15

1. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

2. Social Exchange Perspective

Front 16

What are the two major needs or motivations that explain why humans are driven to form relationships according to the symbolic interaction perspective?

Back 16

1. The need for stability and continuity in a system of MEANINGS (facilitates social interaction and cooperation)

2. The need for stability and continuity in the meaning of the SELF (others in relationships are sources of "reflected appraisals").

Front 17

What are the two major needs or motivations that explain why humans are driven to form relationships according to the social exchange perspective?

Back 17

1. Principle of reciprocity: need for exchange of resources to maximize profits

2. Need to stabilize long term profitabilities (relationships provide a stable and predictable source of exchange)

Front 18

To what extent are men and women different from each other on most traits that have been studied relating to relationships?

Back 18

- Most differences that are statistically significant are small

- Small mean differences and large within group differences

Front 19

What is the difference between statistical significance and strength of effect?

Back 19

- Statistical Significance: probability that the observed relationship or a difference between means in a sample occurred by pure chance and that in the population from which the sample was drawn, no such relationship or differences exists.

- Strength of effect: conveys the estimated magnitude of a relationship without making any statement about whether the apparent relationship in the data reflects a true relationship in the population.

Front 20

Why and under what conditions could it be said that a “statistically significant” effect is not necessarily very significant?

Back 20

If we have a statistically significant mean difference but the effect size is small then the differences in means may not really be significant.

Front 21

What two principles have been used by the evolutionary perspective to explain many of the gender differences found in the study of relationships?

Back 21

1. Parental Investment theory

2. Theory of Parental Uncertainty

Front 22

What is parental investment theory and what does it say about how men and women will behave differently in relationships?

Back 22

- Parental Investment theory: women limit reproduction and invest in survival of offspring and men invest in many women to maximize probability of offspring

- The theory suggests that women will seek one secure, committed, and supportive partner and guard their sexuality while men will seek many women as sexual partners and be less likely to seek out a committed relationship.

Front 23

What is paternal uncertainty theory and what does it say about how men and women will behave differently in relationships?

Back 23

- Parental Uncertainty theory: genetic interest in assuring survival of our OWN genetics and while women are sure of who their children are men can never be 100% sure.

- Women are less likely to be suspicious of their partners while men are more likely to be suspicious of their partners. Also women are most upset about emotional cheating (parental investment theory) while men are most upset over physical infidelity (parental uncertainty could result).

Front 24

What are three major challenges that can be made to the evolutionary perspective on relationships?

Back 24

1. Tendency to ignore contrary evidence as random noise

2. Problem distinguishing between genetic/biological and environmental effects

3. Limited generalizability across generations (what about adaptation?)

Front 25

How would a sociological perspective explain gender differences?

Back 25

It is a two-stage process that explains how gendered power relations effect relationship behavior:

1. Dependency of women due to child bearing and men’s physical strength.

2. Unequal distribution of roles and resources based on roles

3. 1 + 2 = Unequal power distribution based on gender!

Front 26

How have sex-based differences been maintained through out time?

Back 26

Earlier sex based differences sustained through cultural beliefs, socialization, and sanctions, shaped and executed through more powerful men.

Front 27

According to sociological theory is gender socially constructed or based on real differences?

Back 27

Gender is considered a social construct.

Front 28

What can we alternatively call feminity and masculinity?

Back 28

Emotionality and Instrumentality.

Front 29

How do personality traits impact relationship behaviors and outcomes?

Back 29

1. Traits with a positive impact: extraversion, agreeableness conscientiousness

2. Trait with a negative impact: neuroticism

3. O-C-E-A-N

Front 30

Which of the big five personality traits has not been found to be related to relationship behaviors and outcomes?

Back 30

Trait that doesn’t affect relationship behaviors: openness

Front 31

What are the different attachment styles and how do they differ from each other?

Back 31

1. Secure style: connected to parent/partner but allows for individual discovery (60% of infants)

2. Anxious Ambivalent/ Preoccupied: clingy and scared with out parent/partner

3. Avoidant-dismissing: avoidant because doesn’t care/never had care and affection as a child

4. Avoidant-fearful: afraid of rejection so isolates oneself

Front 32

Which attachment style(s) have positive outcomes for relationships?

Back 32

Secure attachment style

Front 33

What is the relationship between childhood parent-child attachment style and later adult attachments?

Back 33

Attachment styles in early childhood are predictive of adulthood attachment styles, but it is not guaranteed.

Front 34

How does an increased life expectancy impact modern day relationships?

Back 34

- Increased pressure on life-long relationships

- Life-long importance on maintaining and building new relationships

Front 35

According to Guttentag and Secord, how will changes in the sex ratio impact relationships?

Back 35

- Changes in sex ratio alter interests of the more powerful group (men).

- High sex ratio: protect one’s propery by promoting marriage, restricting non-marital sex, and prohibit divorces

- Low sex ratio: protect one’s freedom to access women by discouraging marriage and allowing non-marital sex and divorce.

Front 36

What is a “sex ratio”?

Back 36

- Ratio of women to men.

- A high sex ratio is when there are more men than women and a low sex ratio is when there are more women than men.

Front 37

What is an essential precondition to the sex ratio effects on relationships identified by Guttentag and Secord?

Back 37

The principle of least interest: the party who holds the least amount of interest in a relationship holds the power in that relationship.

Front 38

How has technological development altered the nature of relationships in modern society?

Back 38

Modern society is based on a more specialized division of labor based on interdependence rather than commonality (Durkheim)

Front 39

What is the “division of labor”?

Back 39

Division of labor is the specialization of workers to specific tasks. Instead of everyone doing everything for themselves (ie growing their own crops, harvesting their own crops, making their own clothes, etc), as a society we each take on a different task. We become proficient and efficient in that one specialized task/profession which allows for better products and more availability of products for everyone.

Front 40

How does its complexity of Division of Labor and specialization affect relationships?

Back 40

When a society is built upon DOL instead of every man doing every task there is an increase in interdependence and individuality. Thus, people related less on shared characteristics of the group and depend on each other more to statisfy all of their needs.

Front 41

What is the difference between organic and mechanical solidarity?

Back 41

- Mechanical solidarity: group solidarity/cohesiveness based on the sameness of all the members. Everyone takes care of all the same tasks and responsibilities and share traditions to keep their group solidarity intact. Members practice expulsion as a way of dealing with deviants.

- Organic solidarity: group solidarity/cohesiveness based on DOL and the individuality and interdependence of all the members. Members engage in personal relationships to exemplify this interdependence and practice rehabilitation of deviants instead of exclusion.

Front 42

What is the difference between gemeinshcaft and gesellschaft societies?

Back 42

Gemeinshcaft is like mechanical solidarity and gesellschaft is like organic solidarity.

Front 43

How have technological innovations altered the nature of relationships in highly developed societies (3 ways)?

Back 43

- Technological innovations alter the potentials for relationship formation and the forms they may take:

1. Training requirements and timing of marriage

2. Internet and long distance communication

3. Transformation of gender relationships

Front 44

How has (1) capitalism and the development of (2) social class differences affected the nature of relationships?

Back 44

1. According to Karl Marx capitalism undermines communal ties and promotes individualistic love ideals to facilitate exploitation and profit seeking

2. Class differences in capitalism determine differences in resources, values, and relationship stressors.

Front 45

How can it be said that capitalism both promotes relationships and destroys them?

Back 45

- Capitalism promotes relationships through individualistic love

- Capitalism destroys relationships through the exploitation of personal relationships and the destruction of communal ties

Front 46

Why are intimate relationships a threat to capitalism?

Back 46

Intimate relationships are a threat to capitalism because communal ties are a basis for political action against economic exploitation

Front 47

What is meant by “commodification” with respect to intimate relationships?

Back 47

- We purchase the symbols of love and intimacy rather than develop relationships of depth

- Relationships become a commodity like any other, a symbol of success and something to be bought and traded.

Front 48

What is “modernity” as a cultural movement and how has it affected intimate relationships?

Back 48

1. Modernity is a cultural process by which the basis of societal relationships changes from traditional to rational

2. Modernity frees relationships form the restrictions of tradition, defending them and making the more uniquely "meaningful"

Front 49

How can it be said that modernization both increases the personal significance of interpersonal relationships as well as undermines such relationships?

Back 49

Modernity claims that we find meaning in our lives through intimate relationships but rationality places relationships at greater risk by leaving individuals to find their own way with our class guidelines/ community traditions

Front 50

According to Habermas, how has the application of rational principles to behavior in the public vs. private domains changed with increasing modernization?

Back 50

- With increased modernization and rationality in the public sector, eventually modernity and rationality extends to the private sector and individuals apply rationality in relationships to gain their sense of self.

- Example: we make lists of desirable traits for a partner and while in a relationship we weigh the pros and cons of the relationship trying to maximize our benefit from the relationship.

Front 51

According to the article by Bulcroft, et al., what are five major institutional and cultural /changes that have altered the nature of modern relationships?

Back 51

1. Increase in rationality, both in the cultural and individual level

2. Decrease in the place of the community in individuals' lives and increased emphasis on individualism

3. Increased dependence on experts and science

4. Capitalism in place of traditional forms of authority/economies

5. Increased dependence on technology

Front 52

How have the institutional and cultural changes addressed in Bulcroft et al altered relationships in modern societies?

Back 52

All of these changes have:

- helped to add to the increased responsibility of the individual in the success of their own lives and relationships.

- increased the importance of intimate relationships for the development of the self.

- commodification of relationships

- increased uncertainty of success of relationships

- management of risk through personal ads, formal intermediaries, and experts

- increased alienation (Karl Marx)

- increased dependence on formal traditions like marriage and honeymoon to deal with uncertainty of relationships

Front 53

According to research on online personals ads by Bulcroft and Anderson, how are modern segments of society different from more traditional segments in terms of how people approach relationships?

Back 53

People in urban settings (more modernity) have:

- Fewer descriptive disclosures and more evaluative disclosures

- Greater specificity of personality traits

- Greater specificity of activities

- BUT not more romantic or more uncertain than the rural (more traditional) participants

Front 54

What are the two major methodological approaches used to study relationships?

Back 54

1. Qualitative

2. Quantitative

Front 55

What are the goals of the two research approaches used to study relationships?

Back 55

1. Qualitative: goal is to gain understanding of social process and generate new ideas about causal processes

2. Quantitative: goal is to test preconceived theories about causal processes through careful and systematic measurement

Front 56

What are the central concerns of the two research approaches and how do these concerns impact the procedures used by each?

Back 56

1. Qualitative: attempts to neutralize preconceptions --> consider all factors that might understand phenomena and be open to whatever one might find

2. Quantitative: attempts to eliminate personal bias in testing the validity of preconceptions about what the causes of phenomena are --> use of strict replicable procedures to asses hypoth. causes and outcomes and eliminate interference of all other factors.

Front 57

What is “naturalistic observation"?

Back 57

Direct observation of relationships in natural settings with or with our participation (as the observer).

Front 58

What are naturalistic observation's major advantages and disadvantages?

Back 58

- Advantages: eliminate subject bias, rich detail, ecological validity, provides close observation and personal experience of relationships and events affecting relationships

- Disadvantages: potential personal bias, observational limits, and potential ethical problems

Front 59

What is the “informal interview” approach?

Back 59

In-depth discussions with individuals or couples about their relationships or relationship behaviors

Front 60

What are the advantages and disadvantages of informal interviews?

Back 60

- Advantages: ecological validity, can explore all possible factors involved, and rich data

- Disadvantages: potential for personal bias of researcher, respondent limitations on seeing and recalling their own lives, and potential for respondent bias (self-serving, social desirability, powerlessness)

Front 61

What is “content analysis”?

Back 61

Reading, watching, or listening to written, visual, or auditory information to discern patterns through out time and culture.

Front 62

What are content analysis' advantages and disadvantages?

Back 62

- Advantages: ability to assess cultural phenomena and ability to assess historical information

- Disadvantages: personal bias, limited by the selective availability of materials, and bias introduced by the authors of materials

Front 63

What is the experimental design/what are its key components?

Back 63

- An attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.

- Random assignment, manipulation of causal stimulus and observation of results

Front 64

What is “ecological validity”?

Back 64

Real world validity - how much the data/method allows for generalizability to the real world

Front 65

What is meant by “control” (experimental design)?

Back 65

When an experiment is conducted for the purpose of determining the effect of a single variable of interest on a particular system, a scientific control is used to minimize the unintended influence of other variables on the same system.

Front 66

What is meant by “randomization” or “random assignment”?

Back 66

There is a high probability of equal forces on the subjects both groups due to subjects being assigned to groups based on chance.

Front 67

What is the analysis approach used in experimental design?

Back 67

Comparing the average score for people in one group vs. the average for those in another group. If there is a difference between these two means then the only explanation is the difference between groups in the nature.

Front 68

What are the advantages and disadvantages of experimental designs?

Back 68

- Advantages: clear causal implications, no pre-existing differences between subjects, control of all other stimuli, and clear temporal priority.

- Disadvantages: poor generalizability, limited subject matter of topics for research,and questionable ecological validity

Front 69

What are the three requirements for establishing causality?

Back 69

1. Correlation

2. Temporal order

3. Elimination of alternative hypotheses

Front 70

What is the survey design and what are its key components?

Back 70

- Collecting predetermined information from a large number of subjects using questionnaire or interviews.

- Key components: relative resources and correlation coefficient

Front 71

What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment/randomization?

Back 71

- Random sampling is how you sample your population/gather participants

- Random assignment is how you assign your participants to different groups in your experiment

Front 72

What is the analysis approach used in the survey method?

Back 72

Do two or more traits/variables vary systematically across a large number of individuals or couples?

Front 73

What is a “correlation”? What is the range of possible values for correlations? What does the value of a correlation coefficient mean? What is the difference between a positive effect, a negative or inverse effect and no effect and what values of the correlation coefficient indicate each?

Back 73

301, 302, 303

Front 74

What are the advantages and disadvantages of survey designs?

Back 74

- Advantages: large number if randomly selected subjects, potential for studying "real life" topics, and generalizability

-Disadvantages: correlation does not equal causality, or correlations are spurious.

Front 75

What is “spuriousness”?

Back 75

non-causality

Front 76

How can the problem of spuriousness be solved in survey designs?

Back 76

Statistical control

Front 77

What is “statistical control”?

Back 77

A statistical technique used to eliminate variance in dependent variables caused by extraneous sources. In evaluation research, statistical controls are often used to control for possible variation due to selection bias by adjusting data for program and control group on relevant characteristics.

Front 78

How can the problem of establishing time priority be solved using survey designs (2 ways)?

Back 78

1. Longitudinal designs

2. Retrospective questionnaires/interviews

Front 79

What is the quasi-experimental design?

Back 79

A study in which subjects typically receive differing treatments and outcomes are then compared. No randomization is done in the assignment of treatment groups.

Front 80

What are the advantages and disadvantages of quasi-experimental designs?

Back 80

Advantages: easier to set up in situations where random sampling is impossible/impracticable and limits threats to external validity

Disadvantages: since there is no randomization this proposes problems for internal validity, to rule out confounding variables, less able to infer causality, land ess generalizability.

Front 81

What is systematic observation?

Back 81

A planned set of conditions followed by observations.

Front 82

What is the analysis approach used in systematic observation?

Back 82

Group Comparison/Correlation
based on different forms of summarization of interactions:
Global Ratings, Specific Code Aggregations, and Sequential Coding

Front 83

What are the advantages and disadvantages of systematic observation design?

Back 83

- Advantages: Micro-level observation of interactional processes

- Disadvantages: Poor generalizability and Questionable ecological validity

Front 84

What did Schachter find about the need for affiliation in his experiments (page 3, 3 points)

(Chapter 1)

Back 84

1. misery loves miserable (similar) company

2. Participants probably preferred to wait with someone who shared their fate out of the belief that the other would help reduce th emotional impact of the stressful situation.

3. In essence we affiliate with others because they help us reduce uncertainty.

Front 85

According to Homans, what are the four principles underlying social interaction? (page 7)

(Chapter 1)

Back 85

1. The first principle: people with equal status are more likely to interact.

2. The second principle: people who are more similar are more likely to interact.

3. The third principle: the more frequently we interact with someone the more likely we are to like them.

4. The fourth principle: increased liking and increased frequency of interaction will result in increased sentiments of friendships.

Front 86

What does the historical record tell us about the nature of marriage and family in the past? (page 8, 3 points)

(Chapter 1)

Back 86

- The American family is an institution that was relatively short-lived (industrial revolution of the 19th century - 1970's).

- The industrial revolution shifted the site of production to a physically separate workplace and brought about an increased specialization for the husband and the wife.

- Baby boomers = housing boom = suburbs.

Front 87

According to Levinger, what are three sets of social forces that have impacted relationships today? (pages 10-11)

(Chapter 1)

Back 87

1. Industry and commerce lead to a focus on autonomy and personal control: Western societies have become increasingly concerned with issues of autonomy and personal control. Theory: this is due to the spread of commerce and industry, which operates by stimulation and need. Everyone is therefore more concerned with the conduct of their relationships.

2. Equality in relationships between men and women: The economic changes just described have empowered women to the point that their relationships with men are less and less defined in terms of "owner-property" relationships. Instead female-male relationships are defined in terms of intimacy. In terms of relationship satisfaction, higher expectations=lower rel. sat.

3. Increased acceptance of divorce: The increase in autonomy and independence and the push for equality have been accompanied by a reduction in the legal, economic, religious, and social barriers against the ending of marriages. This promotes the possibility of exiting a relationship when careful monitoring suggests that its outcomes fall bellow one's expectations.

Front 88

What is an “operational definition” and how does it facilitate our understanding of social phenomena? (page 16)

(Chapter 2)

Back 88

- Definition: specify how a concept should be measured, and the process through which it will be measured.

- Facilitates understanding: Maximizes objectivity in the measurement and investigation of variables.

Front 89

What is the limitations that come from the used of operational definitions? (page 16)

(Chapter 2)

Back 89

It detracts from the depth and breadth of the concept being operationalized.

Front 90

What is the “dyadic interaction paradigm”? (page 18, 2 steps)

(Chapter 2)

Back 90

1. Participants' interactions are videotaped surreptitiously while they are awaiting the arrival of the RA. - waiting room= natural setting of observation

2. After the taped interaction, participants are seated in separate cubicles while they report their thoughts and feelings while watching the videotaped interaction (interpretation phase).

Front 91

What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of interviews vs. surveys? (page 18-19)

(Chapter 2)

Back 91

1. Interviews:
- Advantages: yields highest quality of data of any research methodology, highest response rate, elicits highly accurate answers.

- Disadvantages: costly financially and temporally, rapport between interviewer and respondent can lead to biased responses, and for sensitive topics anonymity may elicit more frank responses.

2. Surveys
- Advantages: low cost, easy to distribute and respond, can reach a large number of respondents, anonymity for respondents.

- Disadvantages: Reliance on respondents reports, which can be unreliable, over confidence in people's self knowledge, the manner in which questions are asked can elicit bias

Front 92

What are three categories of social interaction or domains of experience of interest to those studying relationships? (page 25-26)

(Chapter 2)

Back 92

1. Reconstructed experience

2. Exemplary experience

3. Ongoing social interactions and experiences