Snc2D Biology Unit

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CELL THEORY

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1) All living things are made up of one or more cells and their products
2) The cell is the simplest unit of life
3) All cells come from pre-existing cells

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There are two types of cells...

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1) prokaryotic

2) eukaryotic

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PROKARYOTIC CELLS

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-No nucleus or other organelles
-Organisms are single-celled
-Very simple

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EUKARYOTIC CELLS

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-More complex organization
-Organelles exist and compartmentalize the cell's functions
-Much larger than prokaryotic

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CYTOPLASM

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WHAT IS IT:
Jelly-like substance that fills the cell

FUNCTION:
Holds organelles in place, allows cell reaction to occur

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CELL MEMBRANE

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WHAT IS IT:
Semi-permeable, double membrane

FUNCTION:
Determines what enters and leaves the cell

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NUCLEUS

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WHAT IS IT:
Control center of the cell

FUNCTION:
Controls all cell activities and contains DNA/chromosones

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MITOCHONDRIA

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WHAT IS IT:
Powerhouse, site of energy production from sugars by cellular respiration.

FUNCTION:
Makes oxygen available to the cell - there are more mitochondria in more active cells

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ER - ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

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WHAT IS IT:
Network of 3D tubes and pockets that run through the cytoplasm from the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane

FUNCTION:
Used for transport

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VACUOLES

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FUNCTION:
Many functions depending on the cell - storage of food/wastes, or water, removing waste from the cell, or maintaining fluid pressure

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VACUOLE # IN ANIMAL CELLS

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Many small vacuoles (not visible)

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VACUOLE # IN PLANT CELLS

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1 large vacuole

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GOLGI COMPLEX

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FUNCTION:
Collect and process materials to be removed from the cell

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CELL WALL

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WHAT IS IT:
Wall found only in plant cells just outside the cell membrane

FUNCTION:
Provides support and protection

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CHLOROPLASTS

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WHAT IS IT:
Found only in plant cells, contains chlorophyl

FUNCTION:
Makes them and the plants green and allows photosynthesis to take place

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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When plants make sugar from sunlight energy - Does not replace mitochondria (they are still needed in plant cells)

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RIBOSOMES

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WHAT IS IT:
Site of protein synthesis, exist free in the cytoplasm as well as attached to the outer surface of the rough ER

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CENTRIOLES

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WHAT IS IT:
Only in animal cells

FUNCTION:
Create and control spindle fibers in cell division

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NUCLEOLUS

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WHAT IS IT:
Area inside the nucleus where ribosomes are made

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LYSOSOMES

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WHAT IS IT:
The garbage can of the cell

FUNCTION:
Contains digestive enzymes to help eliminate waste

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DNA

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WHAT IS IT:
The hereditary material found in the nucleus

FUNCTION:
Makes up chromatin and chromosomes

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE ACRONYM

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MI FROG ED

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M

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Movement

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I

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Irritability: response to stimulus or environmental changes

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F

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Feeding: plants make their own food using photosynthesis, animals must consume food

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R

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Reproduction

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O

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Organization: cells organized in tissues into organs into organ systems

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G

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Growth: building body parts

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E

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Excretion: eliminate waste

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D

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Death :(

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OCULAR LENS

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Look through here, 10x magnification

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BODY TUBE

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Holds eyepiece and objective lenses at the proper distance

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ARM

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Connects base and tube (carry it with one hand here)

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REVOLVING NOSEPIECE

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Holds objective lenses, rotates to put correct lens in place

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OBJECTIVE LENS

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Magnifies things
Low - 4x
Medium - 10x
High power - 40x

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CLIPS

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Holds the slide in position

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DIAPHRAGM

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Controls the amount of light reaching the specimen

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STAGE

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Holds the slide

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FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB

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Used with medium and high power lenses to focus the specimen

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COARSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB

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Used only with low power lens to focus the specimen

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LIGHT SOURCE

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Makes it easier to see the details of the specimen

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BASE

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Supports the microscope (hold with second hand here)

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THE CELL CYCLE

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Responsible for the growth and development of individuals by allowing cells to divide

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WHY DO WE NEED NEW CELLS?

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-Replace dead ones, repair body, and for growth

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LIFE SPAN

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Brain: 60+ years
Red blood: 120 days
Stomach lining: 2 days
Skin: 20 days

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PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

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Interphase (G1, S, G2)
Mitosis
Cytokinesis

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INTERPHASE

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Longest stage for most cells
-DNA replicates itself (S phase)
-More organelles are formed
-Chromatin coil to form chromosomes (G2)
-Once chromosomes form, division begins

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PROPHASE (STAGE 1 OF MITOSIS)

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-Can see 2 stranded chromosomes under the microscope
-Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear
-Spindle fibers appear (from centrioles or poles) and attach to each centromere
-Begin to move toward centre

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METAPHASE

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Chromosomes are pulled by spindle fibres until they line up at the middle of the cell

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ANAPHASE

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-Spindle fibres shorten and pull the centromeres apart
-The 2 strands separate and go to opposite ends of the cell

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TELOPHASE

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-Spindle fibres disappear
-Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear
-Chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin
-Two nuclei in one cell

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CYTOKINESIS

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Cytoplasm divides

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CYTOKINESIS IN ANIMAL CELL

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Cell membrane pinches in the middle

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CYTOKINESIS IN PLANT CELL

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Cell plate grows at the center and becomes and cell wall

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CANCER

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Abnormal cell division

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TUMOURS

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When cells divide out of control and begin to pile up on each other

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BENIGN TUMOUR

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Tumours that do not have a serious effect on surrounding tissue except to crowd it; do not break off

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MALIGNANT TUMOUR

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Tumours that produce chemicals that interfere with and can destroy tissue around it
-They can break off, move through the circulatory system and settle somewhere else ("metastasis")

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CAUSES OF CANCER

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Mutations - Changes in DNA:
1) Carcinogens

2) Genes

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CARCINOGENS

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Factors in the environment that can cause cancer - smoke, radiation, UV rays, x-rays, etc.

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GENES

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Genes passed from parent to child can make the child more likely to develop some types of cancer (you cannot inherit cancer directly)

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HOW TO DIAGNOSE CANCER

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1) Endoscopy
2) X-rays
3) Ultrasound
4) CT Scan
5) MRI

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ENDOSCOPY

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Fibre-optic cable with camera and forceps to look inside and take samples

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X-RAYS

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Look for masses in tissue, but can also cause cancers

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ULTRASOUND

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Like X-rays but with ultra high frequency sound, used for soft tissues

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CT SCAN

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Multiple angles of x-rays assembled by computers to form detailed images

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MRI

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Uses magnetic fields and radio frequencies to create a BD model of the tissue

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HOW TO TREAT CANCER

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1) Surgery

2) Radiation

3) Chemotherapy

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SURGERY

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If tumour is accessible (may not be - wrapped around blood vessel or nerve)

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RADIATION

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Upsets mitosis and cell division
-Kills off cancer cells: very focused

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CHEMOTHERAPY

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Uses drugs and affects ALL dividing cells, not just cancerous ones
(Used with radiation to stop division and destroy cancer cells)

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WHAT IS A SPECIALIZED CELL?

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Cells with physical and chemical differences that allow them to perform one job very well

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IN ANIMAL CELLS

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-Red blood cells
-Muscle cells
-Fat cells
-Skin cells
-White blood cells
-Nerve cells
-Bone cells
-Sperm cells
-Photophores

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RED BLOOD CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Contains hemoglobin, they are very smooth

FUNCTION:
Carries oxygen through the blood line

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MUSCLE CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Arranged in bundles (muscle fibres)

FUNCTION:
They can contract to make the fibre shorter and bones move

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FAT CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Have one large vacuole

FUNCTION:
Stores fat molecules, stores chemical energy

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SKIN CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Fit together and cover your body

FUNCTION:
Protects inside cells and reduces water loss

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WHITE BLOOD CELLS

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FUNCTION:
Move around to engulf bacteria and fight infection

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NERVE CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Long and thin, they conduct electrical impluses

FUNCTION:
Coordinates body activity

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BONE CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Collect calcium from food, build bone around themselves

FUNCTION:
Allows bone growth and repair, creates the skeleton

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SPERM CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Move independently, they carry DNA from the male parent which will try and join with a female egg

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PHOTOPHORES

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WHAT IS IT:
found in nocturnal or deep ocean animals

FUNCTION:
emits light

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IN PLANT CELLS

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-Transport cell 1
-Transport cell 2
-Storage cells
-Photosynthetic cells
-Epidermal cells
-Guard cells

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TRANSPORT CELL 1

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FUNCTION:
Carry water and dissolved minerals throughout the plant

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TRANSPORT CELL 2

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FUNCTION:
Carry dissolved sugars around the plant

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STORAGE CELLS

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FUNCTION:
Store starch as a source of energy for the plant

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PHOTOSYNTHETIC CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Contain chloroplasts

FUNCTION:
Collect energy from sunlight to make sugar

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EPIDERMAL CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Found on young roots

FUNCTION:
Uses its hairs to absorb water from the soil

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GUARD CELLS

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WHAT IS IT:
Found in the surface of leaves

FUNCTION:
Controls water loss

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

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Atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

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4 TYPES OF TISSUE

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1) Epithelial
2) Connective
3) Muscle
4) Nerve

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EPITHELIAL TISSUE

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Thin sheet of tightly packed cells that cover body surfaces and line internal organs and body cavities
eg. stomach lining

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE

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Provides support and protection for various body parts
eg. bone

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MUSCLE TISSUE

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Contains proteins that can contract and enable the body to move
eg. skeletal muscle

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NERVE TISSUE

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Conducts electrical signals from one part to another
eg. brain

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ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION BENEFITS

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-Life-saving
-Improves quality of life
-Satisfaction
-Knowledge of systems/research

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2 RISKS OF ORGAN TRANSPLANTS

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1) Rejection

2) Weak immune system

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REJECTION

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When the tissues of the donor don't match those of the recipient and their immune system tries to kill it

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WEAKENED IMMUNE SYSTEM

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Cyclosporine (which is taken to prevent dangers of rejection) weakens your immune system, making you more susceptible to infection and disease

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TRANSPLANT "BANKING" TIMES

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Most tissues: up to 5 years
Organs: immediately

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LIVING DONOR OPTIONS

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1) Kidney (donate 1 out of 2)

2) Lung (two donors each donate one lobe)

3) Liver (donate 1/3 and both partial livers regrow)

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DECEASED DONORS

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-Signed organ donation card/family gives consent
-Most transplants are from deceased donors

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XENOTRANSPLANTATION

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Use of tissues/organs from other species in transplantation (parts are cleaned first)