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105 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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proxy measure
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A readily measured statistic or parameter that can be used in place of a more complex statistic, or to ‘stand in for’ one that is impossible to measure directly; e.g. disease statistics are often used as proxy measures of the ‘health’ of a population; the number of prescriptions for antidepressants can be used as a proxy measure for the number of people with depression in a population. (CS 1 & 2)
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psychobiological approach
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An approach to explanation which implies two closely related things: (i) both biological and psychological sciences have central roles in the explanation, and (ii) a given phenomenon to be studied within this perspective, such as pain, has both biological and psychological aspects. (CS 2 & 3)
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psychogenic pain
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Pain that arises from psychological triggers such as social loss; e.g. bereavement, marital breakdown. (CS 2)
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psychogenic stimuli
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Stimuli to pain that are associated with social loss such as bereavement, marital breakdown. (CS 2)
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psychological trauma
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Severe psychological shock.(CS 6)
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pulmonary hypertension
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High blood pressure in the blood vessels supplying the lungs – a sign that blood flow is restricted in some way. (CS 5)
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pulmonary rehabilitation
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A multi-disciplinary programme of care for patients with chronic respiratory conditions, which is tailored to the individual and combines exercise and education to address all aspects of living with the condition.(CS 5)
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pulse oximetry
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A non-invasive method of measuring the level of oxygenation of the blood by using light absorption to calculate the relative levels of haemoglobin and oxyhaemoglobin.(CS 5)
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pupil
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The opening at the centre of the iris that allows light to enter into the eye. (CS 7)
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pyloric sphincter
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A muscular structure at the junction of the stomach and small intestine that constricts and closes when food is present in the stomach, preventing it from passing into the small intestine.(CS 3)
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radiographers
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A radiographer is someone who has taken a four-year degree course which qualifies them to employ a range of equipment such as X-rays, MRI scanners, etc. to produce images to diagnose an injury or disease. They will then have undergone further specialist training in mammography. (There are two types of radiographer, diagnostic and therapeutic; the latter have undergone a similar training to enable them to operate radiotherapy machines that treat cancer and to calculate (or plan) the arrangement of X-ray beams for the treatment.) All UK radiographers are registered with the Society and College of Radiographers. (CS 4)
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radiologist
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A radiologist is medically qualified person who has then chosen to specialise in clinical radiology – the use of imaging to diagnose, treat and monitor various disease processes. UK consultant radiologists, have undergone a long training and are registered as Fellows of the Royal College of Radiologists. (CS 4)
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receptor
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A complex specialised molecule embedded in the outer membrane of a cell, or in its internal structure, which has a unique three-dimensional shape and patterns of electrical charge that enable it to bind specifically to a particular signalling molecule (e.g. a hormone or neurotransmitter). When the signalling molecule binds to its specific receptor, a response is initiated in the cell of which the receptor is a part; e.g. cells in the mammary glands proliferate in response to the binding of their oestrogen receptors to the hormone oestrogen, which is secreted primarily by the ovaries. (CS 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6)
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referred pain
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Pain that arises from tissue damage in one part of the body, but which is felt to be arising in a different part of the body. It is said to be ‘referred to’ a part that is not damaged. (CS 2)
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reflection
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A process at an interface of two media in which light is returned into the original medium without transmission or absorption. (CS 7)
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reflex
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The mechanisms in the nervous system underlying an automatic and unconscious reaction to a particular stimulus, i.e. a reaction that cannot be controlled by will-power. For example, the withdrawal reflex, which causes the rapid movement of a limb away from a noxious stimulus such as a sharp object or intense heat, or the reduction in size of the pupil when a bright light is shone into the eye. (CS 2 & 7)
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refraction
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A process at an interface of two media in which the direction of light is deviated within the new medium. (CS 7)
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refractive errors
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Visual defects caused by imperfections in the cornea and/or lens of the eye. (CS 7)
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regenerative medicine
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The clinical approach to tissue repair that seeks to build new tissues in a similar manner to the way in which they form naturally (rather than the way in which they repair after damage). (CS 6)
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reinforcer (in psychology)
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A reinforcer refers to a factor that strengthens a tendency to engage in a particular behaviour.(CS 3)
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relative risk
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An estimate of the probability of developing a particular disease or disorder in a population that has been exposed to a particular risk factor, relative to the probability of developing the condition if the risk factor was not present. (CS 4)
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repair (of a tissue)
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Tissue repair implies mending/healing of damaged tissues and some restoration of function, but not necessarily to the original state. (CS 6)
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residual volume (RV)
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The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration. (CS 5)
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respiration
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The total process in an organism by which oxygen is conveyed to tissues and cells, oxidation of nutrient molecules releases useable energy, and the oxidation products (carbon dioxide and water) are given off. (See also cellular respiration.) (CS 5)
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respiratory centres
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The areas of the medulla region in the brain that integrate sensory information from chemoreceptors monitoring the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. The respiratory centres send out appropriate signals to regulate the rate of contraction of the respiratory muscles (including the diaphragm and rib muscles). (CS 5)
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respiratory system
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The system of organs and structures in which gas exchange takes place. In mammals it consists of the airways, the lungs and the muscles that mediate the movement of air into and out of the lungs. (CS 5)
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retina
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The light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eyeball that contains the visual receptor cells (rods and cones). (CS 7)
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reward (in psychology)
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An event that follows a particular behaviour and which strengthens the tendency to repeat that behaviour. For example, if relaxation follows drinking alcohol it would be said to reinforce the tendency to drink alcohol. (CS 3)
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risk factor
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Or ‘disease risk factor’; anything that is statistically associated with an increased chance of developing a particular disease, disorder or disability in a population; when the incidence of the disease is examined in different populations it is found to occur more frequently in those who have been exposed to the risk factor than in those who have not, or whose exposure level has been lower. (CS 1, 4, 5, 6 & 7)
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rods
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Photoreceptor cells that are responsible for night vision. These cells provide no information about colour. (CS 7)
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SAFE
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A global strategy to combat trachoma, involving eyelid surgery, antibiotic treatment, attention to facial cleanliness and environmental changes. (CS 7)
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scar
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The tissue that forms following healing, which is not the same in structure as the original tissue. (CS 6)
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scatter plot
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A graphical method of showing whether two numerical variables are related to one another. They are called ‘variables’ because they can each have a range of possible values. Each data point on a scatter plot represents a particular entity, such as a country, for which the two variables have been measured. (CS 1)
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Schwann cells
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The cells associated with peripheral neurons that wrap themselves around the axons. (CS 6)
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screening
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The systematic application of a test or investigation to people who have not sought medical attention, in order to identify those whose risk of developing a particular disease is sufficient to justify further action. (CS 4)
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selection pressure
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The environmental factors impacting on survival and reproduction in a population of organisms in which there is variation between individuals in their ability to withstand adverse conditions or benefit from advantageous circumstances. The result of a selection pressure (e.g. exposure to antibiotics in bacterial populations) is that individuals who are best adapted to withstand it or benefit from it leave a larger proportion of offspring in the next generation, while those who are less well adapted suffer reproductive disadvantage. (See ‘natural selection’.) (CS 1)
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sensitivity (of a screening test)
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A screening procedure has high sensitivity if, in people who do have the disease being screened for, the procedure is very likely to detect disease, that is, to give a positive result. Numerically, sensitivity is calculated by expressing the number of true positive results as a percentage of the total number of people (true positives + false negatives) that actually have the disease. (CS 4)
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sensory neuron
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A class of neuron that detects the presence of stimuli in the world, such as tactile events, heat, cold or tissue damage. (CS 2)
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SI Units
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(SI stands for the French Système Internationale). The term given to those units of measurement that scientists all over the world have agreed to use in their publications; e.g. the second (abbreviated to s) is the standard unit for time, kilogram (kg) is the SI unit for the mass of an object, and metre (m) for the size of objects or the distance between objects (CS 1)
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side-effects
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Any unintended and undesirable consequences of medical treatment; also known in medicine as an adverse effect or reaction. (CS 2 & 5)
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sievert (Sv)
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The unit used to measure equivalent dose and effective dose. (CS 4)
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single bond
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A covalent bond formed by the sharing of two electrons, one from each atom at either end of the bond.(CS 3)
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single-strand break
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A break in one of the helical strands of a DNA molecule, caused by ionising radiation. (CS 4)
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skeletal muscle
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The type of muscle tissue that is responsible for moving parts of the musculoskeletal system. (CS 6)
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Snellen letter chart
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The eye chart used to determine how well a person can see at various distances. Named after a 19th-century Dutch ophthalmologist Hermann Snellen (1834–1908) who devised a test for visual acuity. (CS 7)
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solvent
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A substance (usually liquid) in which other substances dissolve. (CS 1)
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somatic nervous system (SNS)
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That part of the nervous system that exerts control over the skeletal muscles and thereby over behaviour. (CS 2)
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specificity (of a screening test)
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A screening procedure has high specificity if, in people who do not have the disease being screened for, the procedure is very likely not to detect disease, that is, to give a negative result. Numerically, specificity is calculated by expressing the number of true negative results as a percentage of the total number of people (true negatives + false positives) that actually do not have the disease. (CS 4)
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spectrum
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The entire range or extent of some quantity, arranged in order; e.g. the electromagnetic spectrum or the visible light spectrum. (CS 4 & 7)
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spinal cord
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A collection of neurons and other cells that is located within the protection of the backbone. (CS 2)
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spirogram
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A graph recording breathing, which is made with a spirometer. (CS 5)
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spirometer
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An instrument that can be used to measure the volume of air entering and leaving the lungs. (CS 5)
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spirometry
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The use of a spirometer to measure the volume of air entering and leaving the lungs. (CS 5)
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splint
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Immobilisation of a broken bone using something rigid. (CS 6)
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sputum
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Matter formed from saliva mixed with mucus and any foreign material such as dust, which is coughed up (expectorated) from the lower respiratory tract and usually ejected from the mouth. (CS 5)
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stem cells
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Cells that can divide to produce daughter cells, which can then differentiate to become any of a range of different cell types. (CS 6)
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stochastic (effect of ionising radiation)
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This refers to a random effect of ionising radiation. There is no radiation threshold at which the effect inevitably occurs, but the probability of an effect occurring increases with the amount of radiation received. (CS 4)
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stress response
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A physiological reaction occurring in the body, triggered by the perception of aversive or threatening situations. (CS 1)
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stress
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The experience of being in an unpleasant situation, over a period of days, weeks or longer, in which one is unable to exert control over circumstances which are not of one’s choosing. The coping resources necessary to meet the demands of this unpleasant situation are lacking. See also ‘post-traumatic stress disorder’. (CS 1)
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stroma (of the cornea)
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The corneal tissue consisting mainly of collagen fibres arranged in a manner that permits light transmission. (CS 7)
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structural formula (of a molecule or compound).
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A representation using chemical symbols that shows the order in which the atoms are joined together; e.g. the structural formula of water is shown as H\O\H. (CS 3 & 5)
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stunting
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Being shorter at a given age by a specified amount below the population average. (CS 1)
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subjective experience
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An experience which is accessible only to the person who experiences it in terms of the contents of his or her conscious mind. Such experience is not open to objective observation or measurement by any other individual and hence is contrasted with ‘objective experience’. (CS 2)
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sweat glands
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Ducts lined with epithelial cells that originate in the dermis and release sweat onto the surface of the skin.(CS 6)
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synapse
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The junction where a neuron influences another cell, the latter being either another neuron or a muscle cell. (See also ‘postsynaptic neuron’, ‘presynaptic neuron’.) (CS 2 & 3)
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systematic screening programmes
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Screening programmes in which there is a system for locating and inviting everyone in the target population to have the screening test; people who don’t respond are followed-up with the aim of increasing the proportion who have been screened. (CS 4)
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systolic blood pressure
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The blood pressure that is detected during heart contractions, which is higher than the diastolic pressure. (See also diastolic blood pressure.) (CS 6)
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tendons
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The tissues that attach muscles to bones.(CS 6)
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threshold of excitation (of a neuron)
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The level of intensity of stimulation of a neuron at which it first shows activity. The term is used particularly in the context of sensory neurons. (CS 2)
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tidal volume (TV)
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The volume of air inhaled and exhaled at each breath when resting. (CS 5)
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tissue engineering
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Building replacement tissues to aid repair following damage. (CS 6)
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tissue
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A group of specialised cells that work together to fulfil a specific function in the body, e.g. muscle tissue, epithelial tissue.(CS 4, 5 & 6)
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tolerance (in drug addiction)
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Over time, a need for an increasing amount of drug to obtain the same level of effect, e.g. the amount of alcohol required to produce intoxication. (CS 3)
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total lung capacity (TLC)
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The total volume of gas contained in the lungs after a full inspiration (it is equal to vital capacity plus residual volume). (CS 5)
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toxicology
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The study of toxins and their effects on living organisms. (CS 1)
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toxin
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A poisonous substance produced by a living organism, usually injurious to potential prey, predators or competitors. (CS 1)
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trachea
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The tube descending from the larynx to the bronchi and carrying air to the lungs; also known as the windpipe. (CS 5)
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trachoma
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A painful eye condition caused by repeated infections with the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis .(CS 7)
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transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
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A therapeutic technique where low-level stimulation is given to the skin and which has the effect of reducing pain. (CS 2)
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transmission (of light)
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A process in which light passes through a medium unaffected, e.g. light passing through clear glass. (CS 7)
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transpiration
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The release of water vapour by plants. (CS 1)
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trauma
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Any physical injury or severe psychological shock. (CS 6)
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traumatic injury
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Injury causing physical damage to the body. (CS 6)
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trichiasis
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A symptom of trachoma in which eyelashes grow inwards and scratch the conjunctiva, causing pain, scarring and eventually blindness. (CS 7)
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trichromacy
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The production of any colour by varying the relative intensities of the subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta and yellow). (CS 7)
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true negative
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In screening, a person whose screening test result is negative (indicating no disease), and who actually does not have the disease. (CS 4)
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true positive
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In screening, a person whose screening test result is positive (indicating disease), and who actually has the disease. (CS 4)
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urbanisation
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The process of urban development, i.e. of towns and cities, and the movement of an increasing proportion of a country’s population from rural to urban environments. (CS 1)
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vacuum
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A volume in which there are no atoms or molecules. (CS 7)
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vasodilation
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The expansion of narrow blood vessels immediately beneath the skin; as they dilate they can carry more blood. (CS 3)
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veins
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Large blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. (CS 3, 5 & 6)
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venous return
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The flow of blood back to the heart in the veins. (CS 6)
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visual acuity
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A measure of how well a person sees, determined by the minimum distance at which two lines (or points) can be distinguished at a test distance. (CS 7)
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visual disability
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A visual impairment that interferes with day-to-day functions that an affected person considers to be normal. (CS 7)
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visual impairment
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A variety of conditions associated with eyesight, from total loss of sight (blindness) to partial sight loss. (CS 7)
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vital capacity (VC)
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The total amount of air that can be taken in to the lungs during a maximum inspiration, or expelled during a maximal expiration.(CS 5)
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vitreous humour
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The transparent gelatinous fluid within the eyeball (between the lens and the retina). (CS 7)
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water-borne infectious diseases
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Diseases in which the pathogen causing the disease lives part of its life cycle in water; e.g. cholera, cryptosporidiosis. (CS 1)
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wave
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A constantly repeating variation of some quantity that transfers energy from one position in a medium to another. (CS 4 & 7)
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wavelength
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In a travelling wave, the wavelength is the distance between one peak of a wave and the next peak, measured in metres (m). (CS 4 & 7)
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wave-particle duality
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The behaviour of electromagnetic radiation cannot be adequately described in all situations by any one model. In some situations the wave model is appropriate, in others the particle model, which describes the radiation as photons, must be used. This is described as wave–particle duality. (CS 4 & 7)
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wet AMD
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A type of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in which new blood vessels form in an attempt to restore the blood supply to the retina. The new vessels are fragile, and may leak blood into the eye. (CS 7)
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wind-up (in the nervous system)
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A form of plasticity within the connections between the neurons that underlie nociception and pain, such that, over time, increasing levels of pain are experienced even though the stimulus remains unchanged. (CS 2)
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withdrawal symptoms
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Characteristic signs that follow the termination of taking a drug, most usually associated with a negative mood. There can also be characteristic physiological signs associated with particular drugs, e.g. sweating and shivering. (CS 3)
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xenobiotic
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Literally meaning ‘alien to nature’, the term is commonly used to refer to chemicals in the natural environment that are of human origin. (CS 1)
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