Scientific Reasoning

Front 1

What is Science?

Back 1

Science is the intellectual and practical activity used to solve problems and questions about the world around us. The answers found need to be tested to prove they are true.

Front 2

What Processes Do Scientists Use In Order to Understand the World Around Us? Give examples.

Back 2

Scientists use the Scientific Method, a systematic search for information, based on checks and re-checks of new informations to determine whether original ideas are correct. Scientist use two types of reasoning: the inductive one, using observations to generate new knowledge; and the deductive one, using information already existing (knowledge) to generate new predictions about new situations.

Front 3

What are Hypothesis, Theory and Law? Give examples.

Back 3

Hypothesis: it is an educated guess that need to be checked and re-checked, because they it could also be wrong. Ex: Every time I wake up at 8am, I arrive in class on time. Theory: it is a widely accepted explanation of observed phenomena (hypothesis), supported by repeated testing. Ex: Heliocentric theory. Law: it is an universally true description of observed phenomena (hypothesis) in the universe. Ex: Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

Front 4

What is Ethics?

Back 4

Ethics is the study of goodness (what we should want) and rightness (what we should do).

Front 5

Acts versus Omissions? Give examples.

Back 5

If, by failing to act, a life is lost that would otherwise have been saved, are we at fault? Did we as good as take that life? In other words: do our omissions carry the same weight as out actions? Ex: Testing on animals for Cancer research.

Front 6

Principles of Ethical Research: the three R’s?

Back 6

The three R’s are: Replacement: use something other than animals. Reduction: use as few animals as possible. Refinement: use methods which minimise pain and suffering.

Front 7

What is a Clinical Trial?

Back 7

A clinical trial is a trial carried for the first time in order to develop a treatment, or medicine, or a procedure, that can benefit society or an individual.

Front 8

Phases of clinical trial?

Back 8

Phase 0: human macrodosing studies. Phase I, small group (10-200) healthy volunteers: assesses safety and tolerability of drug. Phase II, larger group (20-300) patients: assesses dosing requirements and then assesses efficacy. Phase III, randomised, controlled, large scale groups (300-3,000). Phase IV, post-marketing surveillance.

Front 9

Double-blind Trials

Back 9

In the double-blind trial both the patient and the doctors do not know which drug is given, then records are kept by clinical trial researchers.

Front 10

Reasons for Double-blind Trials

Back 10

The reasons are that the studies can be influenced by the placebo effect, by observer bias and by experimenter’s bias.

Front 11

Placebos

Back 11

Placebos are fake/inactive or simulated medical intervention. They are given to assess psychological effect of being given any medication rather than biochemical effect.

Front 12

What is a “first in man” trial? Give examples

Back 12

First in man trial is a medical study of a new drug being tested on humans for the first time. Previously it was only trialled in animals or in vitro. It is performed only on ridiculously healthy volunteers. Though trials are always risky, as observed on TGN1412 in 2006, when volunteers lost digits and one even died.

Front 13

What are Genes/Chromosomes?

Back 13

Genes are the smallest units of inheritance, they determinate our characteristics and are found in chromosomes, located in the nuclei of cells, that make the DNA (deoxyribonucleic Acid). We all have two copies of each gene, one from the father (the paternal allele) and one from the mother (the maternal allele).

Front 14

How characteristics are inherited?

Back 14

Characteristics are passed on in the chromosomes that offspring inherit from their parents. We all have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), half from our mother and half from our father.

Front 15

What is DNA and base pairs and arrangements? Explain structure?

Back 15

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. Chromosomes and their genes are made of DNA. Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly coiled DNA. DNA molecules contain the code that controls what cells are made of and what they do. There are four type of base pairs, C always pairs with G (C❪G) (G❫C) and A always pairs with T (AA). A: adeline. C: cytosine, G: guanine, T: thymine.

Front 16

Explain Mitosis? Not the process

Back 16

Meiosis cells are in plants and animals being life as a single cell, but grow to become adults which contain billions of cells. Mitosis is also a way to repair and replace old and damaged cells: a parent cell divides int two identical daughter cells that will do the same and so on.

Front 17

What are sex cells?

Back 17

Sex cells are called gametes. The gametes are eggs and sperms. Eggs are produced in the ovaries (women) and sperm cells are produced in testes (men).

Front 18

Explain Meiosis? Not the process

Back 18

Meiosis are cells are sex cells or gametes. Meiosis is also a way to reproduce cells: the number of chromosomes is halved. Meiosis produces four unique daughter cells.

Front 19

What is cross over?

Back 19

Crossing over is a process that happens during the early stage of meiosis. During this process homologous chromosomes (matching pairs of chromosomes) exchange DNA, which forms genetic variation and new combinations of characteristics.

Front 20

Explain Mutation and Give examples?

Back 20

Mutation is a natural process that changes a DNA sequence. Some mutations can result in a new characteristic for the individual, that can be good or bad. Ex: flowers can grow in different colours, some mice can have bands in the coat around the body.

Front 21

Genetic engineering/modification? Give examples.

Back 21

Gene therapy is a method in which children with faulty immune systems are treated by adding genes to their bone marrow cells. There are some phases: research which gene are involved in the genetic disorder, cutting and coping a healthy version of the faulty gene, adding the gene to a harmless virus that carries the gene into the patient’s cells, the patient’s cells can now make the correct product of the gene.

Front 22

Using viruses to insert ‘new’ genes 
for example, creating a bacterium that will create/do something for us?

Back 22

A bacteriophage is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. The virus attacks bacteria but not humans. It infects bacteria by injecting its genetic material down a special tube.

Front 23

Transgenic Give examples.

Back 23

Transgenics is a process of inserting foreign DNA, including DNA from humans, into animals. Ex: spider-goats, gene therapy. What is gene therapy?

Hint 23

Transgenics is a process of inserting foreign DNA, including DNA from humans, into animals. Ex: spider-goats, gene therapy.

Front 24

What is gene therapy?

Back 24

Gene therapy is a method in which children with faulty immune systems are treated by adding genes to their bone marrow cells. There are some phases: research which gene are involved in the genetic disorder, cutting and coping a healthy version of the faulty gene, adding the gene to a harmless virus that carries the gene into the patient’s cells, the patient’s cells can now make the correct product of the gene.

Front 25

What is Greenhouse effect?

Back 25

Greenhouse effect is the trapping of the sun’s warmth in a planet’s lower atmosphere, due to the greater transparency of the atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet’s surface.

Front 26

What influences the Greenhouse Effect? Explain?

Back 26

The Greenhouse effect is influenced by solar influx, by albedo (0 = black, 1 = white) and by atmospheric composition. Another cause is human activity, in fact there is a 95% probability that it is the dominant cause of climate change. When sunlight reaches Earth’s surface, it can either be reflected back into space or absorbed by Earth. Once absorbed, the planet releases some of the energy back into the atmosphere as infrared radiations (IR).

Front 27

Gases that strengthen the Greenhouse Effect?

Back 27

The gases that strengthen the Greenhouse effect are CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCS (Chlorofluorocarbons, 15,000 times more effective than CO2).

Front 28

What Will The Consequences Be of Climate Change?

Back 28

The consequences of Climate Change will be: rising sea level (melting ice caps), areas of land rendered uninhabitable by humans, acidification of the oceans, northward shifts of temperate regions, large scale extinctions, widespread extreme weather events.