Science 2

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9. What test would you do to diagnose a genetic disorder due to an abnormal chromosome appearance or number of chromosomes? What does this test NOT detect? Down Syndrome is also known as _____ 21, because there is an extra chromosome 21.

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Karyotypes can diagnose Abnormal Chromosome Number (too many or too few chromosomes result from mistakes in meiosis)
Karyotype: a picture of your chromosomes. They are used by geneticists and genetic counselors to see major problems with human chromosomes.
Trisomy: is an example of too many chromosomes. Ex. In down syndrome there is an extra chromosome at chromosome #21. (tri= three; there are only supposed to be 2 of each)

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10. Who discovered X and Y chromosomes, and what organism did this scientist study? What determines whether you are male or female? What is the probability (percent) of a normal mother and father having either a boy (or a girl)?

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Gregor Mendel is that father of Mendelian Genetics. He was a monk who conducted genetics experiments in Austria. Most of his research on the inheritance of traits in pea plants has been supported by modern molecular genetics research. His discoveries form the basis of our understanding of genetics today. Although other patters of inheritance have been discovered, his work is still valid. Mendel chose to work with pea plants because they have multiple traits that he could follow over generations of plants. He could also manipulate the plants.
Your alleles you receive from your dad determines if you are a girl or a boy. If you get a Y chromosome from him then you will be a boy, but if you get an X chromosome you will be a girl.
The percentage of being a boy or a girl is a 50/50 chance.

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12. What are inherited traits? What are acquired traits? Give examples of each.

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Inherited traits: are passed from parent  child
Ex. Eye color, hair color, etc.
Acquired traits change or develop as a result of your own life experiences and learned behavior (environmental traits)
Ex. Larger muscle size from exercise

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13. What is polygenic inheritance? What is codominance? What is incomplete dominance? Give examples of each type of inheritance.

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Polygenic inheritance: ???????????
Incomplete dominance: 2 or more alleles result in a phenotype that is intermediate or in between the cominate trait and recessive. Heterozygous = blending of dominant trait and the recessive. Ex. Red flower (RR) x white flower (rr) = Pink flower (Rr)
Codominance: alleles are fully expressed ithout one allele dominant over the other, and no blending. Heterozygous= you will see both traits. Ex. Red horse x white horse = roan horse (mixed)

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14. What are linked genes? How are traits of linked genes inherited (together or separately)?

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Linked genes are genes that are located close together on a chromosome are inherited together. They are not inherited independently or separately, and do not follow Mendal’s law of independent assortment. Ex. Red hair and freckles are traits inherited by linked genes. You may have noticed other traits in your family that are inherited together.

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15. What blood type is the universal donor? What antigens do the red blood cells of people with this blood type have? What blood type is the universal recipient? What blood plasma antibodies do the red blood cells of people with this blood type have? What happens if you are given the wrong type of blood transfusion?

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A universal donor has the O blood type, and the recipient can be any blood type.
Red blood cells have an A antigen, B antigen, A and B antigens or no antigents (type o) on the surface.
Agglutination: If you get the wrong blood type your body will try to get rid of the non self blood by forming clumps of RBC’s.

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16. If you want to determine whether an organism that shows the dominant trait is genetically homozygous or heterozygous, what genetic test would you do?

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You would look at its parents chromosomes?

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17. What is Mendel’s Law of Dominance? What is an allele? What is a dominant allele or trait? What is a recessive allele or trait?

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Mendel’s Law of Dominance means that if there is a dominant trait present, then the dominant trait will show.
Alleles: an alternative form of a gene – “factors”
Dominant alleles/traits are always shown, and they prevent the recessive to show.
Recessive alleles/traits are covered by the dominant alleles. You must have two recessive traits to see it.

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18. Who or what determines whether you are male or female? Are there genetic disorders that can be inherited by more than one inheritance pattern? Do all genetic traits and disorders follow Mendel’s 3 Laws?
The dad determines whether it’s a male or female by giving a Y or an X chromosome.

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X-linked inheritance = sex linked traits. Genes for these traits are located on the x chromosome, and are usually recessive. If you hare X*X* (homozygous for the trait, female) you will have a disorder. (very rare) If you have X*X (hereroxygous for the trait, female) you will not have the disorder but you will be a carrier. Females are the carriers in x-linked disorders. If you are a X*Y (male) you will have the disorder. Because males do not have a normal X (to make normal protein that the gene codes for) the gene will be expressed. If males have the disorder, then all their daughters will have it. EXs. Color blindness, hemopihlia (bleeding disorder) ALD, and muscular dystrophy.

Autosomal dominant inheritance are dominant. All children will have at least 1 effected parent. (effected-has the trait or disorder) Both males and females can have the trait or disorder. Every Generation will have the trait or disorder.
Ex. Neurofibromatosis, huntingtons disease, ALS, familial hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol)
Autosomal recessive inheritance is only individuals with 2 recessive alleles will have the trait or genetic disorder. Both males and females can have the trait or disorder. Generations are skipped. Every other generation will have the trait or disorder.
Ex. Cystic fibrosis, metabolic diseases, SCIDS (immune deficiency) sickle-cell anemia, Tay Sachs disease.

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20. What are the 2 main functions of the circulatory and respiratory systems?

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The purpose is to provide body cells with oxygen (needed for cellular respiration/ATP) and nutrients. It also removes carbon dioxide and wastes from the body.
The purpose is to provide the body with oxygen (needed for ATP). It serves as an excretory function, removing carbon dioxide from your body.

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21. What kind of control are your heart rate and breathing rate under? Can you change how fast you breathe and how fast your heart beats? What is the structure in your heart that keeps your heart beat at a certain rate, and initiates electrical impulses?

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Autonomic nervous system: provides involuntary (automatic) control of your internal organs. Peripheral nerves connects to smooth muscle (digestive and blood vessels). Controls digestion, heart rate, and breathing.
- The pacemaker is where electrical impulses … in the heart (right atrium) and makes the heart muscle contract (=heart beat). Your heart beats automatically; normal heart rate for teens and adults is 60-100 per minute. Your heart rate changes with the body’s need for energy, controlled by the brain (medulla oblongata) If you need more energy (running or stressed) your heart will beat faster.

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22. What kind of blood (oxygenated or deoxygenated?) does the right side of your heart receive, and where does it go? What kind of blood does the left side of your heart receive, and where does it go?

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Right side recieves deoxygenated blood from the body and sends it to the lungs. The left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body.

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23. In the cardiac cycle, which phase is the pumping phase, and which number on the blood pressure reading is this? Which phase is the filling phase, and which number on the blood pressure reading is this? What structures in the heart keep blood flowing in one direction?

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Systole is the pumping phast of the heart, when blood is pumped to the body and lungs.
Diastole is the relaxation phase of the heart, when blood goes from the atria to the ventricles.
Your blood pressure measures these 2 phases of cardiac cycle.
Top number = Systolic pressure
Bottom number = Diastolic pressure
Ex. 120/70

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hat type of blood vessel is blocked in a heart attack? Which type of blood vessel carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart? Which type of blood vessel carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body? Which type of blood vessel is responsible for gas and nutrient exchange with body cells and tissues?

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Your heart pumps blood from your lungs (where blood gets O2 that is oxygenated) to your body (which uses O2 that’s deoxygenated) AND back from your body to your lungs. A heart attack is when 1 or more coronary arteries that supply oxygen to the heart are blocked, and heart muscle is damaged or dies (stops beating)

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25. What lung structures exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with your blood vessels? What is the main structure that air goes through to get to the lungs?

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1. Nose – air enters the body
- Protective structures include :
a) Nose hairs trap lung particles, prevent them from entering lungs
b) Mucus warms and moistens the air, removes the particles
c) Cilia remove particles (swallowed or coughed/sneezed out)
2. Pharynx – passageway of air and food

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26. What do red blood cells do? What do white blood cells do? What does your blood plasma do? What are the functions of blood?

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Plasma – the liquid part of the blood (water and proteins). Plasma proteins are needed for: making blood clots, keeping your cells in osmotic equilibrium (no shrinking or exploding cells) and for immune defense (antibodies)
White blood cells – protect against infections, make antibodies, and makes up your immune system
Red blood cells – contain hemoglobin, which carries oxygen to body cells. Made in bone marrow. They only live 4 months, (120 days) in the body so they are constantly being made.
Platelets – make blood clots to stop bleeding when you are injured.

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27. Why does the circulatory system depend on the skeletal system? Hint: what does the skeletal system make that is part of the circulatory system? When athletes collapse at the end of a marathon, what is the most likely problem that they are having?

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Muscle fatigue: occurs with strenuous exercise. Because muscle contraction requires ATP, when energy use exceeds the available ATP supply (oxygen is depleted also). Muscles cannot contract and relax properly, leads to muscle cramps and lactic acidosis (due to switch to anaerobic fermentation). Both ATP and oxygen can be replenished after the strenuous exercise is stopped (rest)

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28. What is a negative feedback loop? What is a positive feedback loop? Give examples of both. Which type of feedback maintains homeostasis? What is homeostasis? Which type of feedback involving melting polar ice accelerates global warming?

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Negative feedback loop: how the nervous system maintains homeostasis. The last step inhibits or stops the first step. This is the loop that doesn’t work correctly for the patient with phantom limb pain (it becomes a positive feedback loop). \
Ex. A hot candle  spinal reflex arc  move hand away  spinal reflex arc neurons stop sending signals

Positive feedback loop: does not maintain homeostasis. The last step causes the first step to increase or continue.
Ex. Phantom limb pain  sensory neuron senses pain  sends message to brain  causes even more signals to be sent from where the brain thinks the absent limb is  for more pain ins perceived by the brain.

Homeostasis is when your body stays the same temperature through any condition.

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29. What happens in the “fight or flight” response, and which nervous system controls this? What happens in the “rest and digest” response, and which nervous system controls this?

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Fight or flight response: emergency response to danger, directs blood from “non-essential” organs to the heart and skeletal muscles. It increases heart rate, increases breathing rate, lowers digestive rate, enables you to turn away or face danger, and epinephrine and novepinephrine??? Are the neurotransmitters.
Rest and digest response: controls body, functions during routine conditions. It lowers the heart rate, has no effect on breathing, increases digestion, conserves body every, and acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter.

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31. What is a spinal reflex arc? Give an example.

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The spinal reflec arc allows you to react rapidily to an external threat, such as a hot flame without the need for processing by the brain. In a spinal reflex arc, the sensory neuron is the nerve cell that detects the harmful threat outside your body.

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32. What is a stroke? What would happen if you had a stroke in your right frontal lobe? Left frontal lobe? Parietal lobe? Occipital lobe? Cerebellum? Can your brain, by itself, reverse the effects of a massive stroke that involves the entire brain?

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A stroke is when blood supply to a part of the brain is blocked, usually by blood clot. This is an ischemic stroke. When there is bleeding to the brain, its called a hemorrhagic?? Stroke. Both types of strokes result in loss of function of the part of the brain that is damaged.
The cerebellum controls posture, balance, and movement. (involuntary control) works together with the frontal lobe and brainstem to coordinate muscle action. The medulla oblongata controls heart rate and breathing rate and connects brain stem and spinal cord.
The cerebral hemispheres coordinate sensory processing and motor responses. 2 cerebral hemispheres (L and R) are connected by a thick bundle of axons (neurons) called the corpus callosum, which allows both sides of the brain to communicate. The left brain controls communication, written and spoken, math and science skills, reasoning (logical thought) moves the right side of your body. The right brain provides insight, imagination, 3-d spatial skills, art and music awareness, moves the left side.

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34. Does your brain allow you to learn now, at age 50, at age 90? Why or why not?

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Yes your brain is flexible, it constantly changes to create new nerves pathways to try to keep you alive and it reacts quickly to environmental changes.

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35. What type of muscle allows your heart to beat automatically? What type of muscle is in your digestive system? What type of muscle allows you to move around?

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Mechanical breakdown of food (chewing) – teeth and tongue cut up your food into pieces.
Chemical digestion: saliva made by salivary glands contains amylase, and enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars.
After being chewed, food is called bolus, which goes to the very back of the mouth to the pharynx where it is swallowed.
Skull-fixed joint: which cannot move (protect your brain)
Vertebrae – spine bones have semi-moveable joints, which allow limited movement. Cartilage disks separate the bones of the spine and provide cushioning. Upper vertebrae (near your head) allow some rotation=pivot joints.

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36. What is the first line of immune defense? What is the 2nd line of immune defense? What is the 3rd line of immune defense? Which 3rd line defense protects you against viruses, and what kind of cells does it involve? Which 3rd line defense protects you against bacteria, what kind of cells does it involve, and what do these cells make?

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The first line is your skin, it is a wall to stop pathogens from infecting you. This is a nonspecific response which keeps all pathogens out of your body. Cuts or burns in your skin may lead to infection.
Second line is the inflammatory response, it is a nonspecific response. It includes a histamine released from your white blood cells. Histamine causes your blood vessels to dialate (get larger) and the infected areas gets warm and swollen.
The 3rd line of immune defense is a specific response that targets the specific pathogen. Macrophages which eat the pathogen show the new antigen to other WBC’s called helper T cells. Antigen is any substancse that the body recognized as foreign.

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37. What are allergies? Describe the symptoms and treatment of allergies.

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If you have allergies, you have a lot of histamine released. Watery, red eyes, stuffy or runny nose, sneezing, iching, rash. Allergies are treated by removing the allergea and taking antihistamines, which stop histamine from causing an overacted inflammatory response.

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38. What do vaccines do? What type of immunity do vaccines give to the vaccinated person?

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Some viral infections can be prevented with vaccines.

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39. What is the immune system problem in HIV infection?

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HIV-AIDS: caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. HIV attack helpter T cells, so people with HIV cannot fight off or have future immunity to specific pathogen. HIV patients have no third line of immune defenses. HIV results in a compromised immune system. Their immune system is defective. They cannot fight off infectious diseases. People with HIV get infections and cancers that healthy people would normal be able to fight off. These opportunistic infections or cancer are responsible for deaths of AIDS patients.

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40. What are the nutrients needed for humans to survive (look in your digestive system lecture notes)? In the U.S., who is at risk for developing diabetes?

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EVERYBODY.
1. Carbohydrates: used for energy, fiber
2. Fats (lipids): cell membranes, horomones, insulation
3. Proteins- growth, structures (muscle), enzymes, horomones, and antibodies
4. Vitamins – help enzymes work, growth, metabolism(energy use)
5. Minerals – building blocks for bones (calcium) blood (iron) muscles and nerves
6. Water – need for chemical reactions, waste removal, body temperature stability (homeostasis)
- We are 55-60% water
- 2.5 liters (1 large soda bottle or 5 small 500 mL bottles) are lost each day through evaporation from mouth, skin, and excretion of wastes so you need to drink lots of fluids.

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41. What 2 digestive organs do both mechanical and chemical digestion? What does your liver do? What would happen if you didn’t have a liver? How is liver failure treated?

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1. Stomach – muscular organ that digests food bolus into chime
- Mechanical digestion – breaks up food by muscle contractions into tiny particles
- Chemical digestion – pepsin is an enzyme that digests proteins. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) keeps the pH of the stomach at 2. (very acidic) the ideal pH for pepsin to work.
2. Mouth
- Mechanical breakdown of food (chewing) – teeth and tongue cut up your food into pieces.
- Chemical digestion: saliva made by salivary glands contains amylase, and enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars.
- After being chewed, food is called bolus, which goes to the very back of the mouth to the pharynx where it is swallowed

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42. What digestive organ(s) is/are not working normally if you have diarrhea? What are the digestive processes that occur in these digestive organs?

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It is not working due to inflammatory response or temporary damage to the lining of the small and large intestines. So food is not digested properly or absorbed properly. Water is also not absorbed properly. And you end up with watery diarrhea.
Stomach ulcers (holes or damage to the lining of the stomach) may be caused by an infection or by direct damage from certain drugs (aspirin, Motrin, alcohol)

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43. What are the 4 types of waste? What do the lungs remove? What does the skin remove? What does the digestive system remove?

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Carbon dioxide, used proteins with broken chemical bonds, excess salts, and solid digestive waste. The lungs remove excess CO2 everytime you exhale. Your cells make CO2 during aerobic cellular respiration. The CO2 is converted to bicarbonate in the blood where it is carried to the lungs. Where it diffused out of the blood, then exhales as CO2 gas.
Some wastes are removed by the skin. Sweat glands help to keep you cool on hot days, by evaporated water off your skin – which cools you down (they also remove excess salts)
The digestive waste is removed by the digestive waste is removed by the digestive system. Fiver (cellulose) which you cannot digest and extra bacteria from you intestines = waste. Your large intestine reabsorbs water from your digestive wastes. Solid waste (feces) leaves your body via the rectum and anus.

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44. What do the kidneys do? What is the functional unit of the kidney? In filtration, what is kept in the blood, and what is removed into the urine? What gets absorbed back into the body? How is kidney failure treated?

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The kidneys are the main excretory organ. You have two kidneys. If you lose one to disease or trauma, you can still live and be healthy with on kidney. Kidneys are located on both sides of your spine on the back area. The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron which is made of tiny tubes. (there are up to two million nephrons in each kidney). The nephron produces urine by filtering the blood. The blood goes into the kidney from an artery called the retinal artery. Your blood pressure pushed the blood from capillaries in the kidney into the nephron. This keeps red blood cells, proteins, and glucose in your blood for future use. It removes water, salts, and urea, which will go into the urine. Absorbing salts and water from the nephron tubules, and back into the body, where they have be used again. Your body tries to conserve water by absorbing the most of it by osmosis.

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45. Which pathogen is a non-living particle that is not a cell, needs a host to reproduce, and interferon protects you from this pathogen? Which type of 3rd line immune defense protects you from infections caused by this pathogen?

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Pathogens: orangisms or particles that cause an infectious disease. Pathogents injure or destroy the body’s cells. Virus’s and bacterias. Fungi, protozoa, prions, paracites.
Viruses are non-living particles that are not cells and cannot reproduce by themselves. Viruses have a DNA or RNA molecule and an outer coat that allows them to enter host cells in your body. When a virus enters a host cell, it reproduces (makes more viruses) and then it kills the host cells. Viruses are treated with antiviral drugs, which disrupt the viral DNA or RNA. Some viral infections can be prevented with vaccines.

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47. List all of the alternative fuels that you learned about in Unit 7. Give the pros and cons for each type of alternative fuel: solar, biodiesel (biofuels, including ethanol), biomass, hydrogen (and fuel cells), hydroelectric, wind, nuclear, geothermal.

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PROS for fossil fuels: most power plants and devices for living use fossil fuels because they are easy to use.
CONS: fossil fuels are not a renewable resource, so it takes millions of years and high pressures deep inside the earth to make. We are using up the fossil fuels that exists faster than they can be replaced. There is a lot of pollution from fossil fuels because they make acid rain (sulfur emissions from coal) and release particles (gas and coal).

Nuclear energy requires a small amount of mass for a large quantity of energy, whit out providing chemical emissions. Earth contains enough nuclear fuel to meet our present and future energy needs. Nuclear energy would require safe use because fission reactions can produce large amounts of “waste” heat and radiation, which can damage the environment. Nuclear energy would be costly, and the products of radioactive wastes will remain toxic for thousands of years.

Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen to produce only heat and water. This reaction doesn’t produce any of the pollutants associated with hydrocarbon combustion. However hydrogen fuel must be manufactured. New technologies may allow us to extract hydrogen from water or methanol more efficiently and at less cost. Hydrogen-fueled vehicles, particularly heavy ones, must either be equipped with very large fuel tanks or be refueled frequently. Hydrogen gas can be compressed or cooled to a liquid state, which reduces the volume of the fuel considerably. The decrease in volume increases energy density, but the technologies required for this process are expensive.

Fuel cells make use of the energy released when hydrogen and oxygen react chemically to form water. Water is the only waste fuel cells produce. Fuel-cells have the potential for use in hybrid cars.

Geothermal energy (water or gases that come close to the surface of the earth from hot springs or volcanic activity) can be used to heat homes and water and to generate electricity for local communities. New technology could be capable of drilling wells up to six miles deep to tap Earth’s thermal energy, but geographic restrictions, cost, and environmental impact are the major factors that limit current use of geothermal energy.

Biomass (organic material) can be burned as fuel or used to create other fuels. Biomass comes from many different sources, including municipal wastes, crop residues, manure, and by-products of lumber and paper industries. If all the waste from cattle in U.S. feedlots were converted to biogas, it would produce enough energy to heat a million homes. However, large-scale use of farm and forest residue to produce energy would interrupt the natural recycling of nutrients and could contribute to the loss of soil fertility. The conversion of biomass to energy is the production of large quantities of pollutants. Biogas reactors can be constructed with air pollution control devices but these are often very expensive and require constant maintenance. Direct combustion of biomass also produces large quantities of air pollutants. The CO2 and other gaseous components of biogas can be removed with fairly simple technology to yield nearly pure methane. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients contained in the organic matter used to produce alcohol or biogas remain in the residue but need not be wasted; these nutrient-rich residues can be used as fertilizer.

Wind energy sources vary with season and geographic location, which means that s continuous energy supply would require storage capabilities. The large-scale generation of electricity by hydroelectric facilities requires large initial investments, covers large geographic areas and contributes to habitat destruction and other environmental damage. Dams can provide year-round water storage, but the lakes created by these damns gradually fill with silt, slowly but surely reducing the amount of water stored behind the dam and the capacity to generate power. Dams severely disrupt local ecosystems. They also have the potential to break and cause catastrophic floods.

Wind energy sources vary with season and geographic location, which means that s continuous energy supply would require storage capabilities. The large-scale generation of electricity by “wind farms” requires large initial investments, covers large geographic areas and contributes to habitat destruction and other environmental damage. There are wind damns in many regions of the world but wind can’t be stored, so all energy generation stops when the wind is not blowing. Wind is used mainly to supplement other energy sources. Ecological impacts of wind farms include habitat destruction, noise pollution, and unintended killing of birds that may be caught in the rotating propellers.

Solar energy can’t provide a continuous supply of energy unless it is stored. Storing the energy would be expensive, but once it is figured out, it would b an “unlimited and free.” The sun cant provide all the energy we need unless a new equipment is invented that will significantly intensify natural solar radiation.

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48. What is a renewable fuel? List the renewable fuels.

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Renewable energy source is energy obtained from existing natural energy sources that is not expected to be used up through constant use or that can be replaced with in a relatively short period of time. Types of energy that are renewable: solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydrogen, fuel cells, and ethanol.

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50. What is global warming? What is the main contributor to global warming? What are the consequences of global warming that are happening right now and are virtually certain to continue into the future? In developed nations, such as the U.S., where are the health effects of global warming the most severe?

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Global warming is Combustion (burning in the cars, electric power plants) of fossil fuel releases CO2 which make greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases such as CO2 store heat in their chemical bonds, which warms up the earth’s temperature.

Effects of global warming already happening: ice caps/glaciers are melting; melted ice burgs result in higher ocean levels because water expands when it is warm; water absorbs 90% of sunlight, while ice caps bounce 90% of sunlight back; wildfires; animals have to adjust to a different environment; some animals are unable to adjust and have become endangered; plants have tried to escape lowland heats and are being eating by beetles; higher wind speeds= more hurricanes.

In the future we could run out of fuel, and the environment will be significantly damaged.

Ways to slow down global warming: cover windows, upgrade stovetops, change bulbs, go solar, harvest the wind, use the dishwasher, tune water heater, and more.

Everybody is in danger of global warming.

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51. What activities result in a high carbon dioxide footprint? What activities can lower your CO2 footprint? What is a greenhouse gas? What specific greenhouse gas do humans produce, and how do we produce it? What is the Kyoto Protocol? Which nation is the largest energy user and producer of greenhouse gas emissions?

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If you have a high CO2 footprint, that means that you probably have a non-efficient vehile, leave lights on in your house and use up a lot of energy, and other things damaging the environment. Humans breathe out CO2 and we use appliances/technology that produce large amounts of CO2 emissions. If you reduce your carbon footprint, you are emitting fewer emissions to the atmosphere, which will reduce the rate of global warming.

The Kyoto Protocol requires some nations to limit their carbon dioxide emissions to 1990 levels. It would reduce the impact of global warming for now.

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52. What is the 1st Law of Thermodynamics? What is the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics? Which law is the reason why our assumption that the initial PE of your roller coaster = final KE was an incorrect assumption?

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Thermodynamics is the scientific study of energy (physics). The First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. This means energy can be changed from one form to another, energy can’t be created or destroyed, and the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics is the law of entropy. Entropy is the state of increasing disorder, randomness or chaos. The Second Law of Thermodynamics means that the total amount of (quantity) of energy remains constant, that the quality of energy deteriorates over time, and that usable energy is converted into unusable energy (which means it is lost for further use).

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53. What are the 2 states of energy, and how do you define each state of energy? Give examples of each, and the equations for calculating each state of energy.

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The two main states of energy are:
1. Potential energy which is energy that has not been used, AKA stored energy.
2. Kinetic energy which uses the energy of motion, or energy in use.
Both potential energy and kinetic energy are measured in Joules.

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54. List all of the forms of energy that were discussed in Unit 7, and give examples of each.

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Forms of energy: thermal energy (heat), chemical energy (glucose, ATP energy), mechanical energy (work, doing something), gravitational energy (skydiver jumping out of a plane before pulling parachute), electrical energy (electricity), elastic energy (rubber band), and wave energy (includes electromagnetic [light], sound, and water).

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56. What is an engine? Give 3 examples of engines. Why are there no 100% efficient engines?

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Engines convert energy from one form to another.
Examples:
1. Car engines convert chemical energy (fossil fuels) to mechanical work (car moves, kinetic energy) and heat. Hybrid cars use chemical and electrical energy, so the use few fossil fuel use.
2. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of moving air molecules into mechanical energy (turbine moving) and electrical energy (end result of the turbine moving).
3. We are engines too!

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57. What are the 3 types of energy transfer? Give examples of each type.

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Three types of energy transfer are radiation, conduction, and convection.
Radiation- In radiation, no material needed for energy transport due to the release of wave energy. Radiation is important in the atmosphere. Ex: electromagnetic waves (light from a light bulb or solar radiation from the sun), or a watt from a radiator (thermal radiation).

Conduction- Conduction is the transfer of heat from one substance to another substance of a different temperature of a different temp by direct contact. Heat transfer always goes from a higher temperature to a lower temperature until they are at the same temperature. Ex: emersion of ice in hot soup (the hot water in the soup warms and melts the ice). Conduction is important for watt transfer with the Earth.

Convection- Convection is when heat is transferred by currents with in a fluid, which carries energy from the warmer region to the other region. The hotter part of a substance (liquid, gas) that is being heated rises because it’s less dense. The cooler part of the substance sinks, then is heated and rises. Ex: it’s warmer on the second floor of a house because th hot air rises while the cooler air falls. Convection is important for wind and ocean currents, and for heat transfer within the Earth (liquid outer core).

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58. What is energy efficiency? What is the energy efficiency of a standard gasoline-fueled car? Why are there no 100% efficient engines?

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Energy Out / Energy In) x 100= ____% energy efficiency

NO! There is no such thing as a 100% efficient engine. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, some energy is “lost” as unusable energy (heat), so it’s not available to do the work the engine was designed to do.

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59. What are the pros and cons of a hybrid car? Of an electric car? Of a standard gasoline-fueled car? Of a hydrogen/fuel cell car?

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Hybrid Pros: Less damage to the environment, uses electricity and gas to run
Cons: expensive
Electric Pros: Does not run on gas
Cons: expensive
Standard Car Pros: Not as expensive
Cons: Damages the environment
Hydrogen Pros:
Cons: Expensive?

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60. What is specific heat and heat capacity? What is the equation for calculating heat flow, Q? What is a good conductor (high or low specific heat)? What is a good insulator (high or low specific heat)? Give examples.

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Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1̊C. The same amount of heat will produce a different temperature change in different substances, because the value is different for different substances.

High specific heat means a lot of energy is needed to increase the temperature by 1̊C. These substances warm us and cool down slowly, which means they have a high heat capacity. They are good insulators and coolants. Water has a high specific heat because of the energy needed to break the hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together.

Low specific heat means that little energy is needed to increase the temperature by 1̊C. These substances heat up and cool of quickly, so they have a low heat capacity. They are good conductors of heat (they pick up heat quickly). Metals are used for coking food because they pick up heat from the flames quickly, because they are good conductors because they have a low specific heat.

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61. What does gel electrophoresis make? What electric charge does DNA have? Which electrode does it (DNA) move towards? Electricity is the movement or excess of which specific part of an atom?

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Gel electrophoresis makes current electricity.
The DNA is negatively charged so it moves to the positively charged electrode.
Current electricity occurs when a charge moves through and electrical conductor, such as the wire in an electrical cord or gel of a gel electrophoresis box. For a charge to flow or move, there must be a force (or “push”) that is applied to the charge. The force that causes the charge to move is the potential difference, or electrical potential. The amount of force applied to the moving charge is the electromotive force (EMF) which is measured in volts.