Respiratory Pathology And Physiology From Fa

Front 1

COPD

Back 1

obstruction of air flow -> air trapping in lungs low FEV1/FVC ratio (hallmark)

Front 2

chronic bronchitis

Back 2

"blue bloater" productive cough for >3 months in 2 or more years hypertrophy of mucus-secreating glands in the bronchioles leading cause is smoking

Front 3

emphysema

Back 3

"pink puffer" destruction of alveolar walls -> enlargement of airspaces and decreased recoil caused by smoking and alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency -> increased elastase activity

Front 4

asthma

Back 4

bronchial hyperresopnsiveness -> reversible bronchoconstriction

Front 5

bronchiectasis

Back 5

chronic necrotizing infection of bronchi -> permanently dilated airways, purulent sputum, recurrent infections, hemoptysis

Front 6

Which COPD disease is associated w/ Curschmann's spirals?

Back 6

asthma

Front 7

Which COPD disease is associated w/ Kartagener's syndrome?

Back 7

bronchiectasis

Front 8

Which COPD disease is associated w/ alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency?

Back 8

emphysema

Front 9

Which COPD disease is associated w/ cystic fibrosis?

Back 9

bronchiectasis

Front 10

restrictive lung disease

Back 10

restricted lung expansion -> decreased lung volumes (VC and TLC) FEV1/FVC > 80%

Front 11

abestosis

Back 11

diffuse pulmonary interstitial fibrosis caused by inhaled asbestos fibers feruginous bodies, ivory-white pleural plaques

Front 12

Abestosis increases the risk of what?

Back 12

pleural mesothelioma, bronchogenic carcinoma

Front 13

Asbestosis and smoking greatly increase the risk of what type of cancer?

Back 13

bronchogenic cancer

Front 14

Asbestosis is typically seen in what population?

Back 14

roofers, shipbuilders, plumbers

Front 15

neonatal respiratory distress syndrome

Back 15

surfactant deficiency -> increased surface tension -> alveolar collapse

Front 16

What is the lectin:spingomyelin ratio in the amniotic fluid in neonatal respiratory distress syndrome?

Back 16

<1.5

Front 17

What is the treatment for neonatal respiratory distress syndrome?

Back 17

maternal steroids before birth, artificial surfactant for infant

Front 18

Kartagener's syndrome

Back 18

AR, dynein arm defect -> immotile cilia

Front 19

What disease is Kartagener's syndrome associated with?

Back 19

situs inversus

Front 20

What types of bronchogenic carcinomas arise centrally?

Back 20

squamous cell carcinoma small cell carcinoma

Front 21

What types of bronchogenic carcinomas arise peripherally?

Back 21

adenocarcinoma bronchioalveolar carcinoma large cell carcinoma

Front 22

Small cell carcinoma of the lung may lead to what syndrome?

Back 22

Lambert-Eaton syndrome (auto-antibodies against calcium channels)

Front 23

What are the complications of lung cancer?

Back 23

(SPHERE) Superior vena cava syndrome, Pancoast's tumor, Horner's syndrome, Endocrine (paraneoplastic), Recurrent laryngeal symptoms (hoarseness), Effusions (pleural or pericardial)

Front 24

Pancoast's tumor

Back 24

carcinoma that occurs in the apex of lungs

Front 25

What can Pancoast's tumor affect?

Back 25

cervical sympathetic plexus -> Horner's syndrome

Front 26

lobar pneumonia

Back 26

most frequently caused by pneumococcus intra-alveolar exudate -> consoldiation

Front 27

bronchopneumonia

Back 27

most frequently S. aureus, H. flu, Klebsiella, S. pyobenes acute inflammatory infiltrates from bronchioles into adjacent alveoli patchy distribution involving >= 1 lobes

Front 28

interstitial (atypical) pneumonia

Back 28

most frequently caused by viruses (RSV, adenoviruses), Mycoplasma, Legionella, Chlamydia diffuse patchy inflammation localized to interstitial areas at alveolar walls distribution involving >= 1 lobes

Front 29

Which type of pneumonia involves intra-alveolar exudate?

Back 29

lobar

Front 30

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by viruses?

Back 30

interstitial

Front 31

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by Pneumococcus?

Back 31

lobar

Front 32

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by S. aureus?

Back 32

bronchopneumonia

Front 33

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by mycoplasma?

Back 33

interstitial

Front 34

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by S. pyogenes?

Back 34

bronchopneumonia

Front 35

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by H. flu?

Back 35

bronchopneumonia

Front 36

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by Chlamydia?

Back 36

interstitial

Front 37

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by Legionella?

Back 37

interstitial

Front 38

Which type of pneumonia is most frequently caused by Klebsiella?

Back 38

bronchopneumonia

Front 39

What are the physiological responses to high altitude: 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, 7-

Back 39

1- acute increase in ventilation, 2- chronic increase in ventilation, 3- increase in EPO leading to an increase in hematocrit and hemaglobin (chronic hypoxia), 4- increase in 2,3-DPG, 5- Cellular changes (increase in mitochondria), 6- increase in excretion of bicarbonates to compensate for respiratory alkalosis, 7- chronic hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction results in RVH

Front 40

What is the action of 2,3-DPG?

Back 40

binds to hemaglobin so that hemoglobin releases more O2

Front 41

What does acetazolamide doe?

Back 41

it increases the renal excretion of bicarbonates.

Front 42

What are 5 important lung products?

Back 42

Surfactant, prostaglandins, histamine, ACE, Kallikrein

Front 43

What does surfactant do? What is Surfactant? What makes Surfactant?

Back 43

It decreases alveolar surface tension which increases complaince, it is made of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (lecithin), it is produced by type II pneumocytes

Front 44

What pathologic process has a deficiency of Surfactant?

Back 44

Neonatal RDS

Front 45

What are the funcitons of ACE

Back 45

converst angiotensin I to Angiotensin II, inactivates bradyykinin (ACE inhibitors yield increase bradykinin and cause cough, angioedema)

Front 46

What is the colapsing pressure

Back 46

2(tension)/Radius

Front 47

What does Kallikrein do?

Back 47

It activates bradykinin

Front 48

What is the Residual volume (RV)?

Back 48

air in lung at max expiration

Front 49

What is the expiratory reserve volume (ERV)?

Back 49

air that can still be breathed out after nl expiration

Front 50

What is the tidal volume (TV)?

Back 50

air that moves into lung with each quiet inspiration (nl = 500ml)

Front 51

What is the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)?

Back 51

Air in excess of tidal volume that moves into lung on max inspiration

Front 52

What is the vital capacity (VC)?

Back 52

TV + IRV + ERV

Front 53

What is the functional reserve capacity (FRC)?

Back 53

RV + ERV (volume in lungs after normal espiration)

Front 54

What is the inspiratory Capacity (IC)?

Back 54

IRV+ TV

Front 55

What is the total lung capacity (TLC)?

Back 55

IRV+TV+ERV+RV

Front 56

Decreased affinity of hemoglobin for O2 = shift ___

Back 56

Right

Front 57

A right shift is caused by an increase or decrase in each of the following factors: P50, metabolic needs, PCO2, temperature, H+, pH, altitude, and 2,3-DPG

Back 57

Increase in all but pH

Front 58

Fetal Hb curve is shifted ___

Back 58

Left (increased affinity for O2)

Front 59

T/F: Pulmonary circulation is normally a low-resistance, low-compliance system

Back 59

F - Low-resistance, high-compliance

Front 60

Cor pulmonale and subsequent RV failure are a consequence of pulmonary ______

Back 60

Hypertension

Front 61

Hypoxic vasoconstriction that shifts blood away from poorly ventilated regions is caused by ______

Back 61

Decrease in PaO2

Front 62

In normal health, O2 is perfusion or diffusion limited?

Back 62

Perfusion limited - gas equilibrates along the length of the capillary

Front 63

Which of the following is diffusion limited: CO2, N2O, or CO?

Back 63

CO - gas does not equilibrate by the time the blood reaches the end of the capillary

Front 64

When is O2 diffusion limited? What is the equation for Vd?

Back 64

Exercise, emphysema, fibrosis (Vt) x (PaCO2 -PeCO2)/PaCO2; Pa = arterial & Pe = expired air

Front 65

What is the ideal V/Q ratio?

Back 65

V/Q = 1 (permits adequate oxygenation)

Front 66

At the base of the lung, there is greater ventilation, perfusion, or both?

Back 66

Both are greater

Front 67

What is V/Q at the apex of the lung?

Back 67

V/Q = 3 (wasted ventilation)

Front 68

What is V/Q at the base of the lung?

Back 68

V/Q = 0.6 (wasted perfusion)

Front 69

V/Q = 0 implies _____

Back 69

Airway obstruction (shunt)

Front 70

V/Q = infinity implies ______

Back 70

Blood flow obstruction (physiological dead space)

Front 71

Organisms such as TB that thrive in high O2 flourish in the apex or base of the lung?

Back 71

Apex

Front 72

During exercise (increased cardiac output), the vessels in the apex of the lung ___-------_______

Back 72

Vasodilate such that V/Q approaches 1 (versus normal apex V/Q of 3)

Front 73

CO2 is transported from tissue to lungs in these 3 forms: ______

Back 73

(1) Bicarbonate (2) Bound to hemoglobin (3) Dissolved CO2

Front 74

What percentage of CO2 is transported in the form of bicarbonate?

Back 74

90%

Front 75

What is the intracellular enzyme that converts CO2 into H2CO3?

Back 75

Carbonic anhydrase

Front 76

H2CO3 is broken down into H+ and HCO3. What happens to the H+?

Back 76

H+ combines with Hb to form HHb (deoxyhemoglobin)

Front 77

H2CO3 is broken down into H+ and HCO3. What happens to the HCO3?

Back 77

HCO3 is pumped out of the red blood cell in exchange for Cl-

Front 78

What is the Haldane effect?

Back 78

Oxygenation of hemoglobin promotes the dissociation of CO2 from hemoglobin

Front 79

What does kallikrein do

Back 79

Activates bradykinin

Front 80

What affect to ACE inhibitors have on bradykinin

Back 80

Increase bradykinin, which lead to cough and angioedema

Front 81

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: why is it called obstructive?

Back 81

obstruction of AIR FLOW ‚Üí air traping in lungs

Front 82

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: what is the major PFT finding?

Back 82

FEV1 / FVC ration is ‚Üì (hallmark finding)

Front 83

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: name the 4 types of COPD

Back 83

1) Chronic Bronchitis (Blue Bloater) 2) emphysema (pink puffer) 3) asthma 4) bronchietasis

Front 84

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: what is the definition of Chronic Bronchitis

Back 84

productive cough for >3 consecutive months in two or more years.

Front 85

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: what do you expect on lung histology?

Back 85

hypertrophy of mucus-secreting glands in the bronchioles (Reid index of >50%)

Front 86

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: leading cause is smoking: what are the physical findings for Chronic Bronchitis? (name 3)

Back 86

1)cyanosis 2) wheezing 3) crackles

Front 87

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: what is the pathophysiological mechanism of EMPHYSEMA?

Back 87

destruction of fibrous septa/alveolar walls ‚Üí enlargement of air space and ‚Üì total surface area for gas exchange

Front 88

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: if the cause is smoking, what kind of emphysema would you see on histo slide?

Back 88

centri-acinar emphysema

Front 89

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: what else can cause emphysema: (also may work synergistically with smoking): What kind of findings do you see in lung histo and name another organ affected?

Back 89

alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency ‚Üí panacinar emphysema + liver cirrhosis

Front 90

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: what causes the emphysema in this disorder?

Back 90

‚Üë elastase activity to damage lung tissue.

Front 91

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: name 4 findings of emphysema (in general)

Back 91

1) dyspnea; 2) ‚Üì breath sounds 3) tachycardia 4) ‚Üì I/E ratio

Front 92

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: What is mechanism of asthma

Back 92

BRONCHIAL hypersensitivity/hyperresponsiveness ‚Üí REVERSIBLE bronchoconstriction

Front 93

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: name 3 common triggers

Back 93

1) viral URI 2) allergens 3) stress!!

Front 94

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: name 7 findings

Back 94

1) cough 2) wheezing 3) dyspnea 4) hypoxemia 5)‚Üì I/E ratio 6) tachypnea 7) pulsus paradoxus

Front 95

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: BRONCHIECTASIS: what is its mechanism??

Back 95

chronic necrotizing infection of BRONCHI ‚Üí dilated airways, purulent sputum, recurrent infections, hemoptysis (see Robbins for a good discussion of this)

Front 96

COPD = also known as OLD: obstructive lung disease: what disorders is bronchietasis commonly associated with?

Back 96

1) bronchial obstruction 2) cystic fibrosis 3) poor ciliary motility

Front 97

Restrictive Lung Disease (RLD): What are classic PFT findings for RLD?

Back 97

‚Üì VC ‚ÜìTLC ; FEV1/FVC ration > 80%

Front 98

Restrictive Lung Disease (RLD): Name the two MAJOR types of RLD

Back 98

1) poor breathing mechanics (EXTRA-pulmonary) 2) Interstitial lung diseases

Front 99

Restrictive Lung Disease (RLD): cover up various parts of the text/table/outline to test yourself on the following: 1) 2 types of poor breathing mechanics 2) 8 types of interstitial disease that give you a restrictive picture.

Back 99

0

Front 100

Lung Physical Findings: cover up parts of the very good table to test yourself on various findings.

Back 100

0

Front 101

Lung Physical Findings: Obstructive vs. Restrictive findings

Back 101

0

Front 102

Lung Physical Findings: Name 3 lung volumes that are increased in COPD

Back 102

‚ÜëTLC, ‚ÜëFRC, ‚ÜëRV

Front 103

Lung Physical Findings: What 2 values are BOTH reduced in COPD and RLD?

Back 103

1) FEV1 and 2) FVC (think FEV1/FVC ratio) NOTE! in COPD, FEV1 is more dramatically reduced and thus the FEV1/FVC ratio is ‚Üì

Front 104

Asbestosis = long latency = think shipbuilders and plumbers: what is the main pathology resulting from asbestosis?

Back 104

DIFFUSE, interstitial fibrosis caused by inhaled asbestos Fibers.

Front 105

Asbestosis = long latency = think shipbuilders and plumbers: What cancers are increased in pts with asbestosis?

Back 105

1) pleural mesothelioma 2) bronchogenic carcinoma (BC)

Front 106

Asbestosis = long latency = think shipbuilders and plumbers: Major finding in lung?

Back 106

Ferruginous bodies: asbestos fibers coated with hemosiderin also 2) ivory white pleural plaques

Front 107

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: What is the main cause

Back 107

surfactant deficiency --> to increased surface tension --> alveolar collapse

Front 108

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: surfactant is made by which cells? After when?

Back 108

type 2 pneumocytes after 35th gestational week

Front 109

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: what do you measure? Where do you get this fluid?

Back 109

lecithin-to-sphingomyelin ratio in the amniotic fluid = measure of lung maturation <1.5 in neonatal distress syndrome

Front 110

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: what is surfactant made of (chemical name)

Back 110

dipalmitoyl phosph-tidyl-choline (DP-PTC)

Front 111

Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome: treatment for poor maturation of lungs

Back 111

1) before birth = maternal steroids 2) after= artificial surfactant

Front 112

Karta-gener's syndrome: what is this?

Back 112

immotile cilia due to dynein arm defect

Front 113

Karta-gener's syndrome: results in what in female and male? (4 things)

Back 113

1) sterility (in male sperm also immotile) 2)bronchietasis 3)recurrent sinusitis (bacteria & particles not pushed out) 4) associated with situs inversus (e.g. dextro-cardia)

Front 114

Lung Cancer: name the 3 main classes of cancers that affect parts of the lung

Back 114

1) bronchogenic carcinoma (with different subtypes) 2) carcinoid tumor 3) metastasis

Front 115

Lung Cancer: list the 5 types of major bronchogenic carcinomas

Back 115

CENTRAL 1) squamous cell ca 2)small cell ca PERIPHERAL 3) adenocarcinoma 4) bronchoalveolar ca 5) large cell ca

Front 116

Lung Cancer: mnemonic: what is meant by SPHERE of symptoms?

Back 116

S= superior vena cava syndrome; P= pancoast tumor; H= Horner's syndrome; E= Endocrine (paraneoplastic); Recurrent laryngeal / hoarseness; E = Effusions (pleural OR pericardial)

Front 117

Lung Cancer: What can a CARCINOID tumor cause?

Back 117

Carcinoid Syndrome = flushing, diarrhea, wheezing, and salivation

Front 118

Lung Cancer: Metastases to lung is very common, LUNG cancer also prone to metastasize to what other parts?

Back 118

1) brain (epilepsy) 2) bone (fracture) 3)liver (jaundice + hepatomegaly)

Front 119

Pancoast tumor: What is it?

Back 119

it's a carcinoma of the apex of lung

Front 120

Pancoast tumor: what may it affect?

Back 120

may affect CSP= cervical sympathetic plexus causing Horner's syndrome

Front 121

Pancoast tumor: what is Horner's syndrome?

Back 121

P.A.M. is Horny = Ptosis, Anhydrosis, Miosis

Front 122

Pneumonia: 1st AID breaks it down into TYPE/ ORGANISM/ CHARACTERISTICS = cover parts of this table and fill in the blanks

Back 122

0

Front 123

Pneumonia: Lobar Pneumonia; Organism(s) and characteristics

Back 123

Pneumococcus; intraalveolar exudate -> consolidation, may involve entire lung

Front 124

Pneumonia: Bronchopneumonia: Organism and characteristics

Back 124

S aureus, H flu, Klebsiella, S pyogenes; Acute inflammatory infiltrates from bronchioles into adjacent alveoli; patchy distribution involving >= 1 lobes

Front 125

Pneumonia: Interstitial pneumonia; Organism(s) and characteristics

Back 125

Viruses, mycoplasma, legionella; diffuse patchy inflammation localized to interstitial areas at alvolar walls; distribution involving >= 1 lobes

Front 126

Arachidonic acid products: What enzyme breaks down membrane lipid into arachidonic acid?

Back 126

Phospholipase A2

Front 127

Arachidonic acid products: What two enzymes are responsible for the production of Hydroperoxides (HPETEs) and Endoperoxidases, respectively from arachidonate?

Back 127

Lipoxygenase= HPETE, Cyclooxygenases=endoperoxidases

Front 128

Arachidonic acid products: What major class of products do HPETEs give rise to?

Back 128

Leukotrienes

Front 129

Arachidonic acid products: What are the 3 major products of Endoperoxidases?

Back 129

Prostacyclin (PGI), Prostaglandins (PGE, PGF), Thromboxane (TXA)

Front 130

Arachidonic acid products: In general what effect do leukotrienes have on bronchial tone?

Back 130

Leukotrienes in general increase bronchial tone

Front 131

Arachidonic acid products: In the arachodonic acid pathway, what two enzymes do corticosteroids block?

Back 131

Phospholipase A2, COX-2

Front 132

Arachidonic acid products: NSAIDs, Acetaminophen and COX-2 inhibitors block which arachadonic acid pathway enzymes

Back 132

NSAIDs-non-selectively block COX-1 and COX-2, acetaminophen doesn't block COX-1 or COX-2, but instead it may block COX-3 in found in the brain, COX-2 inhibitors block COX-2

Front 133

Arachidonic acid products: What are the 4 major effects of Prostacyclin

Back 133

decrease platelet aggregation, decrease vascular tone, decrease bronchial tone, decrease uterine tone

Front 134

Arachidonic acid products: What are the 3 major effects of Prostaglandins

Back 134

increased uterine tone, decrease vascular tone, decrease bronchial tone

Front 135

Arachidonic acid products: What are the 3 major effects of Thromboxane

Back 135

increase platelet aggregation, increase vascular tone, increase bronchial tone

Front 136

Arachidonic acid products: Zileuton is a ________ pathway inhibitor?

Back 136

Lipoxygenase

Front 137

Arachidonic acid products: Zariflukast is associated with what enzymes?

Back 137

Lekukotrienes

Front 138

Asthma drugs: Bronchodilation is mediated by what molecule

Back 138

cAMP

Front 139

Asthma drugs: Bronchoconstriction is mediated by _________ and ___________

Back 139

Ach and adenosine

Front 140

Asthma drugs: How many asthma drug categories are there?

Back 140

7- (1) nonspecific B-agonists, (2) B2 agonists, (3) Methylxanthines, (4) muscarinic antagonist, (5) cromolyn, (6) corticosteroids, (7) Antileukotrienes

Front 141

Asthma drugs: What is the only nonspecific B-agonist drug and what are its effects?

Back 141

Isoprotenerol-relaxes bronchial smooth muscle (B2) and tachycardia (B1) (adverse effect).

Front 142

Asthma drugs: What are the two B2 selective agonist asthma drugs?

Back 142

Albuterol- relaxes bronchial smooth muscle (B2), Salmetrol

Front 143

Asthma drugs: What are the indications for Albuterol and Salmetrol, respectively?

Back 143

Albuterol- use during acute exarcebation, Salmetrol- long-acting agent for prophylaxis

Front 144

Asthma drugs: what are the notable adverse effects of B2 agonist?

Back 144

arythmias and tremor

Front 145

Asthma drugs: B2-agonists activate this enzyme in bronchial smooth muscle that leads to an increase in ________ = bronchodilation

Back 145

B2 agonists activate adenylate cyclase and increase conversion of ATP to cAMP

Front 146

Asthma drugs: What are the likely mechanism of action theophylline?

Back 146

bronchodialation by inhibition phosphodiesterase (PDE), decreasing cAMP hydrolysis and antagnonizing adenosine action

Front 147

Asthma drugs: Why is usage of theophylline limited?

Back 147

limited b/c narrow therapeutic index (cardiotoxicity, neurotxicity)

Front 148

Asthma drugs: What kind of drug is Ipratropium?

Back 148

muscarinic antagonist

Front 149

Asthma drugs: How does mechanism of action of Ipratropium?

Back 149

competitive block of muscarinic receptors= prevention of bronchoconstriction

Front 150

Asthma drugs: cromolyn works by inhibiting the release of _______ from ______ cell?

Back 150

prevents release of medicators from mast cells

Front 151

Asthma drugs: Cromolyn is mainly used for the ______ of athsma and it is not indicated for _______ treatment of athsma?

Back 151

Used only for prophylaxis, not effective during acute episode. Also, toxicity rare

Front 152

Asthma drugs: __________and ________ are two major corticosteroids used for treatment of what kind of asthma?

Back 152

Beclomethasone and prednisone are 1st line therapy for chronic asthma

Front 153

Asthma drugs: What is the mechanism of action of corticosteroids?

Back 153

inhibits the synthesis of virtually of cytokines-->inactivates NF-KB, the transcription factor that induces the production of TNF-a, amonth other inflammatory agents.

Front 154

Asthma drugs: Zileuton blocks the conversion of _______ to ________.

Back 154

zileuton is a 5-lipoxygenase pathway inhibitior. Blocks the conversion of arachidonic acti to leukotrienes

Front 155

Asthma drugs: Zafirlukast works by_______ ________ ________

Back 155

bloking leukotriene receptors

Front 156

Asthma drugs: What the most basic asthma treatment strategy?

Back 156

avoidance of exposure to antingen (dust, pollen, etc)

Front 157

Asthma drugs: After exposure to antigen crosslinks IgE on mast cells. This is prevented by the following drugs: _________ and ________

Back 157

cromolyn and steroids

Front 158

Asthma drugs: Following allergen exposure mediators are released (ex. _______ and _________). This triggers an ______ asthmatic response characterized by ________ and may be treated with the following 3 asthmatic drug categories to treat the symptoms.

Back 158

examples of mediators are leukotrienes and histamine. Following allergen exposure an early asthmatic response characterized by bronchoconstriction that can be treated with B-agonsists, methylxanthines, and muscarinic antagonists.

Front 159

Asthma drugs: Also, mediators elicit a ________ response is which leads to bronchial __________ and is treated with __________.

Back 159

mediators elicit a late response and this leads to bronchial hyperactivity. This is best treated with steroids.