Research Methods Lecture Notes Chapter 1-6

Front 1

4 Significant Points in Human History

Back 1

1.) Language

2.) Writing

3.) Printing Press

4.) Computers

Front 2

5 Sources to Gain Knowledge "Ways of Knowing".

Back 2

1.) Custom and Tradition

2.) Authority

3.) Personal Experience

4.) Reasoning

5.) Scientific Inquiry

Front 3

Custom and Tradition

Back 3

"They say that..."

Front 4

Personal Experience

Back 4

Superstitions and intuitions.

Front 5

Reasoning: Deductive

Back 5

General assumption to specific application. Based on logical conclusions. General to specific mindset.

Front 6

Reasoning: Inductive

Back 6

Specific cases to general application. Based on empirical methods. Specific to general mindset.

Front 7

Scientific Inquiry

Back 7

1.) Problem identification

2.) Statement of hypothesis

3.) Collection and analysis of data

4.) Accept or reject the hypothesis

5.) Conclusions

Front 8

Two Main Types of Search Services

Back 8

1.) Directories

2.) Search engines

Front 9

Directories

Back 9

Websites are placed into hierarchical, subject based categories.

Front 10

Search Engines

Back 10

User's query is compared with the index or database to find matches. Only index a small percent of web documents.

Front 11

Types of Search Engines

Back 11

1.) Generic

2.) Dedicated

3.) Meta

Front 12

Generic Search Engine

Back 12

Use a form of software program called spiders or crawlers or bots to find information on the internet and store it for search results in giant databases or indexes.

Front 13

Dedicated Search Engine

Back 13

Search engine focused on a particular topic or specialty.

Front 14

Meta Search Engine

Back 14

Combines multiple search engines. Transmits search simultaneously to several individual search engines and their databases of web pages.

Front 15

Cookie

Back 15

A small amount of information that a web site copies to your hard disk. Helps website identify you the next time you visit.

Front 16

Kinesiology

Back 16

The study of human movement.

Front 17

Research

Back 17

Finding solutions to problems in a logical, orderly, and systematic fashion.

Front 18

Parity Claims

Back 18

"Nothing better..." Technically there is worse either.

Front 19

Testimonials

Back 19

Anecdotal evidence. The results are not what happens to typical people.

Front 20

Statistics

Back 20

"30% less fat..." as opposed to what?

Front 21

NNT (Number Needed To Treat)

Back 21

The number needed to treat before someone becomes healed. A low NNT is good

Front 22

NNH (Number Needed to Harm)

Back 22

How many need to be treated to cause harm. A large NNH is good.

Front 23

Nature and Purpose of Research

Back 23

Develop new knowledge and modify, present knowledge. When necessary correct old knowledge.

Front 24

RCT (Randomized Controlled Trial)

Back 24

Gold Standard for Research. Participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment or the control group.

Front 25

Reductive

Back 25

The nature of complex things can always be reduced to simpler more fundamental things.

Front 26

Scientific Axioms

Back 26

1.) Amorality

2.) Caution

3.) Consistency

4.) Determinism

5.) Empiricism

6.) Intelligibility

7.) Parsimony

8.) Skepticism

Front 27

Amorality

Back 27

Knowledge and morality should be independent.

Front 28

Caution

Back 28

New knowledge is accepted cautiously.

Front 29

Consistency

Back 29

The world is orderly and remains so for long periods of time.

Front 30

Determinism

Back 30

The cause of events can be determined and take place for a reason.

Front 31

Empiricism

Back 31

Knowledge should be based on observation.

Front 32

Intelligibility

Back 32

Humans have the ability to understand the world.

Front 33

Parsimony

Back 33

Simple explanations are preferable.

Front 34

Skepticism

Back 34

Knowledge remains open to criticism or challenge.

Front 35

Hypothesis

Back 35

An idea or assumption we believe to be true for the moment. A prediction based on existing knowledge.

Front 36

Fact

Back 36

Consistently observed event.

Front 37

Theory

Back 37

Integrates many facts into an explanation of a phenomenon or a belief about how things relate to each other.

Front 38

Functions of theories

Back 38

Organize a related set of observations or facts. To make predictions for new research.

Front 39

Evaluation of Theories

Back 39

1.) Precision

2.) Simplicity

3.) Testability

Front 40

Principle

Back 40

Guides behaviour based on theories and facts.

Front 41

Law

Back 41

Specific statement usually expressed in the form of a mathematical equation.

Front 42

Levels of Knowledge

Back 42

1.) Description

2.) Predicition

3.) Control

4.) Explanation

Front 43

Types of Research

Back 43

1.) Basic and applied

2.) Qualitative and Quantitative

3.) Descriptive and Experimental

4.) Longitudinal and Cross-sectional

5.) Human and Animal

Front 44

Basic (Pure) Research

Back 44

Goal is to discover new knowledge. Usually deals with theoretical problem. May have no practical application at the present time.

Front 45

Applied Research

Back 45

An effort to solve an immediate problem. Uses real-world setting.

Front 46

Qualitative Research

Back 46

Relies mainly on observations to determine the reasons for human behaviour.

Front 47

Quantitative Research

Back 47

Collect numerical data to understand the concept being studied. Attempt to develop a mathematical model.

Front 48

Descriptive Research

Back 48

Gather information about naturally occurring events. Use surveys, observation, correlation.

Front 49

Experimental Research

Back 49

Manipulate variables to understand cause and effect relationships. Considered the gold standard in research.

Front 50

Longitudinal Research

Back 50

Same subjects are measured repeatedly over an extended period of time - many months or years. Can only be correlational.

Front 51

Cross-Sectional Research

Back 51

Subjects are measured at the same time.

Front 52

Human Research

Back 52

Humans used as subjects

Front 53

Animal Research

Back 53

Animal used as subjects. Gain knowledge from animals.

Front 54

Disseminating Knowledge

Back 54

1.) Presentations (public address and poster presentation).

2.) Written report.

3.) Public address.

Front 55

Format of Journal Article

Back 55

1.) Abstract

2.) Introduction

3.) Method

4.) Results

5.) Discussion

6.) References

Front 56

Abstract

Back 56

Summary of entire article. States purpose or objective of the study. Description of the subjects. Description of what was done. Summary of important results.

Front 57

Introduction

Back 57

Review of the literature: demonstrates that the current study is related to past research. Presents a rationale for the current study.

Front 58

Method

Back 58

Explain enough so others can duplicate the study. Subjects, design, materials, procedure.

Front 59

Results

Back 59

Text, tables and graphs to describe the outcome of the study.

Front 60

Discussion

Back 60

Explain the results in terms of the purpose the study. Some attempt to explain why these results occurred. Possibly suggest future studies.

Front 61

References.

Back 61

List books and other journal articles that the researcher referred to while planning and conducting the study.

Front 62

Primary References

Back 62

Written by someone who witnessed or participated in the event. Contains original research or new information not previously published elsewhere.

Front 63

Secondary References

Back 63

Descriptions of the original work that have been summarized or interpreted. Created after event. May express an opinion or an argument about a past event.

Front 64

introduction and Literature Review

Back 64

1.) Develop new ideas to study the topic

2.) Utilize previous researcher's recommendations

3.) Criticize previous relevant studies and understand contradictory results.

4.) To distinguish between facts, speculation and questions

5.) Identify the source of facts

6.) Help locate reports in books or journals.

Front 65

Pyramid of Evidence

Back 65

1.) Controlled and randomized

2.) Controlled but not randomized

3.) Cohort or case control

4.) Multiple time series

5.) Expert opinion

Front 66

Impact Factor

Back 66

Measure reflecting the average number of citations to recent articles published in the journal.

Front 67

Ethics

Back 67

Moral principles or practices.

Front 68

Informed Consent

Back 68

Make the subject aware of what is to be done. Implies that the subject understands the information that has been given to them.

Front 69

Privacy

Back 69

Right to choose what personal information is shared with others.

Front 70

Anonymity

Back 70

Separate the data from the individual's identity.

Front 71

Confidentiality

Back 71

Only the researcher should know the subjects' results. Researcher will not reveal results publicly. Group data also aids this.

Front 72

Population

Back 72

The entire group having one or more common characteristics.

Front 73

Sample

Back 73

Members of the population selected as a representative subgroup.

Front 74

Random Selection

Back 74

Every subject has an equal chance of being selected and the selection of one does not bias the chance of others.

Front 75

Simple Random Selection

Back 75

Pull from hat or the table of random numbers.

Front 76

Stratified Random Selection

Back 76

Divide population into the various subgroups based on a characteristic or trait.

Front 77

Systematic Sampling

Back 77

Subjects are selected using a system.

Front 78

Cluster Sampling

Back 78

Useful if the researcher has little knowledge of characteristics and the population is widely scattered.

Front 79

Deliberate/purposive sampling

Back 79

Selects subjects with specific characteristics.

Front 80

Convenience Sampling

Back 80

Subjects are accessible and convenient for the researcher to contact.

Front 81

Accidental Sampling

Back 81

Self-selected/volunteers.

Front 82

Purpose of experiments.

Back 82

To help answer a research question. To control for possible alternate explanations.

Front 83

Qualitative Variables

Back 83

Classified by some characteristic: gender, hair color, religion.

Front 84

Quantitative Variables

Back 84

Can be measured in a numerical sense.

Front 85

Independent Variable

Back 85

The variable that is manipulated. by the researcher.

Front 86

Dependent Variable

Back 86

The variable that is measured by the researcher.

Front 87

Extraneous Variables

Back 87

Potential to affect the dependent variable. A source of unwanted variance.

Front 88

Matching

Back 88

On some criterion - make the groups similar.

Front 89

Counterbalance

Back 89

Control for order effects.

Front 90

Primary variance

Back 90

Wanted and consistent.

Front 91

Secondary variance

Back 91

Unwanted but consistent.

Front 92

Error Variance

Back 92

Inconsistent and unwanted.

Front 93

Validity

Back 93

How confident we are about the inferences made as a result of the study.

Front 94

Internal Validity

Back 94

Is it correct to infer a cause and effect relationship?

Front 95

External Validity

Back 95

Can the results be generalized to other settings.

Front 96

Threats to Internal Validity

Back 96

1.) Local history

2.) Pretesting learning occurs each time subject is tested

3.) Maturation

4.) Instrumentation

5.) Selection Bias Effect

6.) Statistical Regression

7.) Mortality

8.) John Henry Effect

9.) Rating Halo Effect

Front 97

Local History

Back 97

All things that occur during, but outside the study (hidden effect)

Front 98

Pretesting

Back 98

Learning occurs each time subject is tested.

Front 99

Maturation

Back 99

Subjects change over time.

Front 100

Instrumentation

Back 100

Changes in equipment.

Front 101

Selection Bias Effect

Back 101

Any time groups are formed in non random fashion (pre-existing subject differences).

Front 102

Statistical Regression

Back 102

Scores move towards the mean.

Front 103

Mortality

Back 103

Non-random mortality is a type of differential subject selection.

Front 104

John Henry Effect

Back 104

The control group tries harder.

Front 105

Rating/Halo Effect

Back 105

Initial rating may influence the future ratings. Tendency to rate subjects in middle of the scale.

Front 106

Experimenter Bias Effect

Back 106

The belief of a researcher can affect the outcome.

Front 107

Pretesting Sensitization

Back 107

"That's interesting..."

Front 108

Hawthorne Effects

Back 108

Novelty of the treatment and participation in an experiment motivates the subject. Importance motivates.

Front 109

Over generalizing

Back 109

Different operational definitions

Front 110

Expectancy (Placebo Effect)

Back 110

The subject believes that treatment is supposed to change them so they respond with a change (self-fulfilling prophecy).

Front 111

Post Hoc Error

Back 111

Assume cause and effect relationship falsely.

Front 112

Reliability

Back 112

Refers to the consistency or repeatability of the data.

Front 113

Test-Retest Method

Back 113

A test is administered twice to the same group of subjects.

Front 114

Split-Halves Method

Back 114

The test is split into two parts and is scored.

Front 115

Independent Groups Design

Back 115

Different groups of subjects in each group.

Front 116

Repeated Measures Design

Back 116

Same people used multiple times.

Front 117

Independent Random Groups, Post Test Only

Back 117

Subjects randomly assigned to one of the two conditions. Dependent variable measured afterwards.

Front 118

Independent Random Groups, Pretest/Post-test

Back 118

Each subject randomly assigned to one of the two conditions. Pretest before independent variable. Then post test taken.

Front 119

Solomon Four-group Design

Back 119

Subjects randomly assigned to 4 conditions. 2 are pretested while the other two aren't. Post test is then recorded.

Front 120

One-group Post-Test Design

Back 120

One subject group with post-test recorded. Poorly designed.

Front 121

One-group Pre-test Post-test Design

Back 121

One subject group with a pretest before the post test.

Front 122

Factorial Designs

Back 122

Studies with 2 or more Independent Variables. Reflect real world better. Are more efficient to conduct. Provide information about interactions.

Front 123

Interactions

Back 123

When the effect of one of the variables differs depending on the level of the other variable.

Front 124

Primary Sources

Back 124

Official records. (Witnessed or recorded event directly).

Front 125

Secondary Sources

Back 125

Did not witness or record the event directly. (Textbooks)

Front 126

External Criticism

Back 126

The authenticity of a study.

Front 127

Internal Criticism

Back 127

The accuracy of a study.

Front 128

Strength of Association

Back 128

Strong relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable = less likely the relationship is due to an extraneous variable.

Front 129

Temporality

Back 129

A cause has to precede an effect in time.

Front 130

Consistency

Back 130

Observations of a relationship, with different people under different conditions and with different measurement devices increases the credibility of the finding.

Front 131

Theoretical Plausibility

Back 131

Does the theory make sense?

Front 132

Coherence

Back 132

Does the relationship fit with the other information?

Front 133

Specificity in the Causes

Back 133

If it can be shown that an outcome is best predicted by one primary factor this adds credibility to as casual claim.

Front 134

Dose Response Relationship

Back 134

There should be a direct relationship between the risk factor and people's status on the disease variable.

Front 135

Experimental Evidence

Back 135

Any related research that is based on experiments will make a causal reference more plausible.

Front 136

Analogy

Back 136

Sometimes a commonly accepted phenomenon in one area can be applied to another area.

Front 137

Meta-Analysis

Back 137

Integrating findings from many different studies.

Front 138

Direct Observation Technique

Back 138

Subject is aware of researcher's presence.

Front 139

Indirect Observation Technique

Back 139

Film or videotape is used.

Front 140

Participant Observation Technique

Back 140

Researcher is part of the research situation.

Front 141

Hypothesis

Back 141

State the proposition formulated for purposes of argument or study.

Front 142

Review of Literature

Back 142

Report and discussion of previously published research reports that and other materials relevant to the research project.

Front 143

Methods and Procedures

Back 143

Detailed enough so someone else can replicate the study.

Front 144

Results and Conclusions

Back 144

Factual reporting is critical. Conclusion refers to hypothesis.