Research Methods Exam 2

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statistics

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an objective means of interpreting a set of data

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3 things statistics allow us to do

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describe characteristics (mean, median, mode), test relationships (correlation, regression), test differences (t-tests, ANOVA)

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the value of a population; the value of a sample

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parameter, statistic

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a subset of the population

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sample

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4 ways to select a sample

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random, stratified random, systematic, volunteers

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example of random sample

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fishbowl method, random number generation

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example of stratified random

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determine relative characteristics (choose 25 random fr, 25 random so, 25 random jr, and 25 random sr for a total of 100)

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example of systematic

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choose every 10th person (sampling interval of 10)

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what kind of research is random assignment essential for

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experimental

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what is the unit of analysis

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the most basic unit from which data can be produced

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give 3 examples of central tendency scores and 3 examples of variability scores

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mean, mode, median; standard deviation, variance, range

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how do you measure the median

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if odd number of scores, it's the middle number; if even number of scores, take the average of the middle two

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when would the median be used over the mean

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skewed data/outlier(s)

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the degree of difference of each individual score in the group from the central tendency score

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variability score

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one number that best represents a group of scores

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central tendency score

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what are the 3 assumptions about the distribution of parametric tests that must be met?

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population is normally distributed on the variable of interest; homogeneity of variance in the samples selected, the observations are independent

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for positive and negative skewness, which way do the tails head?

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for positive skewness, the tail is heading positive

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does increasing the alpha level from 0.05 to 0.30 increase or decrease the chance of making a type I error?

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increases the chance of making a type I error and decreases the chance of detecing a real difference (type II error); alpha is the chance of making a type I error

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what are the two types of kurtosis

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more peaked, more flat

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what are the two things statistical techniques can determine

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the reliability (statistical significance), and how meaningful (strength, magnitude, size)

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what does the null hypothesis state

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there is no difference/significance between the variables

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most statistical analysis are based on what

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probability; a measure of how likely it is that your results occurred by chance

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what is the difference between a type I and type II error

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type I: rejecting a true null hypothesis
type II: accepting a false null hypothesis

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what happens when you change alpha from .05 to 0.01

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you decrease the chance of making a type I error and increase the difficulty of detecting a real difference

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what are the values for a small effects size (meaninfulness), a moderate, and a large ES?

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0.2, 0.5, 0.8

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how is effect size calculated?

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(M1-M2)/SD

Mean and standard deviation

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what happens to the effect size as the standard deviation increases

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effect size decreases

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what is power

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the capability of rejecting a false null hypothesis/detecting a real difference

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what is a commonly accepted level of power in behavioral research

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0.8

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what is the range for power

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0-1

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as the number of subjects increase, what happens to the difference needed between group for significance

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the difference between groups decreases as number of subjects increase; people will cheat and add more subjects to get significant results

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what is a statistical technique used to determine the relationship between two or more variables

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correlation

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what is the coefficient of correlation

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a quantitative value of the relationship between two or more values; can range from 0-1 in either the positive or negative direction

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what is the line of regression

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best fit line or line of best fit

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what can you do to alpha to avoid making a type I error

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decrease the value of alpha

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what are other names for "r", the coefficient of correlation?

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Pearson product moment coefficient of correlation, interclass correlation, simple correlation, Pearson r

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The Pearson r measures the degree of _______ relationships between two variables.

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linear

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what three things about a correlation is the researcher interested in?

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positive or negative
statistical significance
how strong/meaningful is it

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how do you determine the appropriate degrees of freedom for the table of critical values for r

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N-2

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what is r^2

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coefficient of determination; it is a measure of the variance shared by 2 variables being correlated, indicating the portion of the total variance that can be accounted for by the variance in the other measure

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how do you calculate the % variance accounted for?

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r^2 x 100%

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how do you calculate the unaccounted variance

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1-r^2

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what is an alpha level

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the probability of making a type I error

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what is a t-test

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a computational way of relating differences between treatment means to the amount of variability we would expect to see between any 2 sets of data drawn from the same population

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what are the two types of t-tests and how do you set them up

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independent t-test: two different groups of subjects
dependent t-test: one group of subjects tested twice

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what determines the difference between a one-tailed and a two-tailed t-test

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where you place your alpha-level

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in a one tailed test, which error are you more likely to make and why

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type I error (rejecting a true Ho) because it is easier to get into the region of rejection

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is it easier to get into the region of rejection for a one-tailed or a two-tailed t-test

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one-tailed

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what is the greatest amount of groups you can have for a t-test

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2

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what is calculated in a dependent t-test that is not calculated in an independent t-test and vice versa?

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dep. has a % improvement and indep. has an effect size

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what are the three types of ANOVA

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one-way ANOVA (simple)
factorial ANOVA
repeated measures ANOVA

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what is used to compare more than 2 mean scores

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ANOVA

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What is the F ratio

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the ratio of true variance (between groups) divided by error variance (within groups); used in ANOVA

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what is the true variance and error variance due to?

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true variance is due to the independent variable while error variance is due to chance and sampling error

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if the independent variable had an effect, then F ratio will be _____

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large; >1

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what are Scheffe, Tukey WSD, Newnan-Keuls, Duncan, and Fisher LSD

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types of post hoc tests used for one way ANOVA

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how are the independent variables set up in a one way analysis

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there is only 1 independent variable, typically with 3 or more levels (ex. 20%, 40% and 60% VO2 max)

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how are the independent variables set up for a factorial ANOVA

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there are two or more independent variables (2-way, 3-way, etc)

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what are factors, levels, main effects, and interactions for factorial ANOVA

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factors are independent variables, levels are the specific value of a factor, main effect is the effect of a factor by itself when other factors are held constant, and interaction is the combined effect of several factors

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what is a repeated-measures ANOVA

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the same subjects are test on or exposed to all levels of an independent variable

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what is the simplest case of a repeated measures ANOVA

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dependent t-test

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what are 3 advantages of a repeated measures ANOVA

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provides some control over individual differences among particpiants, fewer participants needed, can study something across time

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what are 4 problems with repeated measures ANOVA

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carryover/order effects, practice effects, fatigue or boredom, sensitization

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on an ANOVA graph, what do parallel lines mean, and how are main effects calculated

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no interaction; average of the individual line itself for main effects

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what is the study of changes in behavior across years

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developmental research

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what is the focus of developmental research?

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cross-age comparison

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what are the 2 basic developmental research designs

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longitudinal and cross-sectional studies

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what are the 4 limitations of longitudinal studies

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time consuming, some move away, some die, familiarity with test items

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what is the cohort problem

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problem with cross-sectional developmental design where not all age groups are from the same population/cohort

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what are 4 methodological problems of developmental research?

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unrepresenative score (outliers), unclear semantics, lack of reliability (in young children), statistical problem (violate ANOVA assumption of equal variances)

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in measurement, what does validity refer to

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whether a test measures what it is intended to measure

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what are the two important classifications of validity in experimental research

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internal and external validity

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what are two questions that internal validity addresses

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Did the independent variable make a difference? Are there alternative hypotheses that can account for the results?

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what are two questions external validity addresses

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how generalizable is the effect? to what populations, settings, or treatment variables can this effect be generalized?

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Give two examples of threats to internal validity, describing and giving examples.

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maturation: associated with aging, as children get older, they naturally get larger, stronger, faster, and more coordinated
testing: the effect that taking a test once has on taking it again; a group of students hitting 20 forehand shots in tennis may do better 3 days later without treatment, they learned something from performing the test the first time

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give 2 threats to external validity, explaining and giving examples

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reactive or interactive effects of testing: this is a problem that occurs because a pretest may make the particpiant more aware of sensitive of the upcoming treatment; in a fitness assessment given followed by a training program, an individual might try harder in the training program because they know their fitness is low
interaction of selection bias and the experimental treatment: a drug education program may be effective towards college freshman but not 3rd year medical students

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what is the rosenthal effect

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the experimenter anticipates that certain participants in the group will perform better (halo effect)

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what is the hawthorne effect

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participants performance changes when attention is paid to them

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what is the Avis effect

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a threat to internal validity where participants in the control group try harder just because they are in the control group

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what is a placebo and what does it do

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a false treatment that controls for psychological effects

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what is a blind setup

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participants dont know whether they are receiving the experimental or control treatment

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what is a double blind setup

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neither participant nor the experimenter knows which treatment is given to participants

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what is "nested"

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between-subjects: subjects appear only in one condition or group

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what is the opposite of "nested" or "between-subjects"

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within-subjects/crossed/repeated measures: each subject receives all levels of the independent variable, the subjects act as their own controls

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what is a combination of between-subjects and within-subjects called

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mixed designs

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what are variables that cannot be activitly manipulated called

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organismic variables

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when writing statistical notation, does within- or between-subjects come first and what does this mean

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between subjects comes first (where subjects appear in only one condition like gender or age)

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what are 3 purposes for presenting research at scientific conferences

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visibility, feedback, and networking

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what are three formats for research presentations

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poster, oral, symposia

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what are the 5 steps for publication of a research article

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submit manuscript to the editor electronically, editor selects reviews/referees (either blind or unblind), reviewers submit critique/recommendations to editor, editor makes a decision, possible revisions and fruther review

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what are the 4 common voting categories for the review process

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accept with optional editing, accept contingent on making required changes, unacceptable in present form, reject unconditionally

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what are the 4 criticisms of the peer review process

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inconsistent critiques by reviewers (low inter-rater reliability), too subjective, reviewer biases, long delays