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81 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Variable
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A characteristic of a thing that can assume varying degrees or values.
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Variable
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Discreet, observable phenomenon (Something that can be broken down into varying categories) Gender = Variable, Male = Value
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Tangible Resources
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Can be directly observed and measured (ie food, housing, weapons)
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Dependent Variable*
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Variable which the researcher hopes to explain. It's value is influenced by that of the independent variable.
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Empirical Data
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Data derived from observation, experimentation or personal experience.
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Independent Variable*
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Variable the researcher proposes as the cause of the dependent variable.
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Intangible Resources
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Items of value that cannot be directly observed and counted (power, respect, freedom)
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Confidence Mechanisms
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Distributing resources unequally, while convincing the losers that it is their own fault
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Internal Validity
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The extent to which the experiment is sound and results are valid. Can we be sure that the independent variable caused a change in the dependent variable?
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Reasoning by Analogy
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Analysis by substitution (frequently historical examples)
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Randomization
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The process by which subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to the treatment or control group.
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Purpose of evaluation
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To ascertain the degree to which publicly funded programs have attained their goals.
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5 Problems with evaluation
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Multiple goals
Conflicting goals No consensus on actual goals Different prioritization of goals Poor definition of goals |
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Economic growth vs. efficiency
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Two of the most highly stated goals of public institutions which tend to be conflicting goals.
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5 Sources of market failure
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Subtractability of consumption
Exclusion in Production Lack of Information Unreasonable risk Restricted Entry or Exits |
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Nominal*
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A non-quantitive measure that can name a case only according to a category or class, such a region, religion, gender or race.
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Subtractability of consumption *
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The idea that an item is a private good only if there can only be one owner - if an item is consumed by person A it cannot then be consumed by person B
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Ordinal*
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A measure allowing us to rank observations according to their order on some dimension but without knowing the number of units in each observation.
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Exclusion of Production
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Excludability - The concept that a private good can only be consumed by a person who has paid for a good. If person A buys a toaster, person B can't use the toaster for free.
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Interval*
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A variable based on a common and known unit so that we can tell the interval between different amounts of the variable. (No Ratio Data)
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Toll Good *
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Not private goods because if person A uses the item, person B can use the item concurrently (library, road, movie). If the good is overused there is no recompense for the user.
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Smoothly functioning markets
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Where everyone involved in the transaction is better off for the transaction
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Common Pool Resources *
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Subtractable without exclusion - fresh water, grazing lands, oil - creates a resource without incentive for conservation.
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3 Ways to combat common pool resource overuse
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Find a way to exclude (cheaply)
Turn it into a private resource Public Laws (Limits and/or Access) |
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Public Good *
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Nonsubtractable and nonexclusionary
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Consumer Sovereignty
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Consumers should be able to get what they want in a free market.
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Self Interest
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Narrowly means monetary gain only, broadly has no meaning because too broad.
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Case study
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Study of a single unit, usually in some depth.
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3 Goals and Criteria for Judging the Outcomes of Public Programs
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Economic Growth (Promote resource productivity, Promote Economic Efficiency, Provide information, Spread Risk, Promote market entry)
Distributional Equity (Adequacy, Horizontal Eq., Vertical Eq.) Citizen Preference (Level of satisfaction, Correspondence between citizens and p.a.) |
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Classification
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Categorization of cases into several groups according to some dimension to simplify the number of cases.
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Rivalry
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same as subtractability
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Excludability vs. Subtractability
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High, High = Private Goods
High, Low = Toll Goods Low, High = Common Goods Low, Low = Public Goods |
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Adequacy
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Does the program make a difference
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Theory
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A set of proposed explanations, logically related to each other, that set out to explain or predict a phenomenon
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Horizontal equity
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The degree to which programs treat all eligible beneficiaries equally.
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Horizontal Equity
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A good or service that is distributed to EVERYONE who qualifies (Public housing normally has a waiting list, therefore no horizontal equity.
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Vertical Equity
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Where only those who meet the criteria should benefit from the program...unfortunately impossible, build houses for the poor and the lumber industry benefits.
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Vertical equity
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The degree to which those who are not eligible for the program benefit.
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Three types of Research
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Narrative/Historical Research
Comparative Research Hypothesis Testing |
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Proposition
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States a logical relationship between two or more concepts.
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Hypothesis
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A tentative assertion linking two or more phenomena, so they can be tested empirically.
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6 Characteristics of a Hypothesis
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1 - Usually states a relationship between two or more things.
2 - Is stated affirmatively (not question) 3 - Can be tested 4 - Most useful when it makes a comparison 5 - States how two or more things are related 6 - The theory or underlying logic of the relationship makes sense. |
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4 Common problems with hypothesis
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1 - Vague or trivial prediction
2 - Vague relationship 3 - Value statement 4 - Applying to individuals |
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Induction
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Practice of developing a hypothesis on the basis of our own observations or of studies carried out by others
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Deduction
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Practice of developing a hypothesis from theory or logic.
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Unintended consequences
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When events occur contrary to the intentions of a program - Seatbelt laws reduce motorist deaths, but increase pedestrian deaths because drivers drive faster because they feel safer wearing a seat belt.
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5 Research Design Steps
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1. Identify Research Question
2. Select a Research Methodology 3. Define Terms and Plan How to Collect Data ( and collect the data) 4. Analyze the Results 5. Present Results in a Coherent Narrative and If Possible Add Visuals |
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Metaphor vs. Simile
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Is vs. like
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Executive Summary
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Brief summary of the report written to allow those with little time to decide whether to read the report, pass the report on to one who may be able to use it, or to ignore it completely.
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12 Research paper sections (according to Ramsey, etc.)
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Title Page
Abstract or Executive Summary Introduction - Statement of Purpose, Roadmap Background - the study context and literature review Methodology - Describe resarch design, data set, study sample, etc. Report Results and Findings, Discuss Implications Conclusion - it helps to repeat and reinforce major themes Footnotes Bibliography Figures, Tables, Appendices |
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Two types of studies
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Descriptive study, Causal (or explanatory) study
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Manipulation
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occurs when an experimenter can intentionally create variations in the independent variable.
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Confounding Variable*
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are the rival explanations for the behavior of the dependent variable.
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Subjects
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the units upon which the observations are made (persons, institutions, countries, etc.)
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Control Group
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A comparison group that is used to minimize the unintended influence of other variables on the same system.
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Model
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Consists of elements and relationships as simple representations of complex phenomena.
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2 Types of models:
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Schematic and symbolic or mathematical models.
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Hypothesis
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A tentative assertion linking two or more phenomena, subject to testing and proof. An if-then statement that implies causality.
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External Validity
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The extent to which we can generalize the findings to other situations outside the study.
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Type I Error*
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Rejecting a true hypothesis
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Type II Error*
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Accepting a false hypothesis
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Spurious Relationship*
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A relationship in which two variables that are not causally linked appear to be so because a third variable is influencing both of them.
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5 types of Control
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1) A control variable
2) control for confounding variable 3) use of a control group 4) run a controlled experiment 5) Just control |
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Co-variation
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When TWO variables have a patterned relationship
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Direct Relationship
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Increase (or decrease) in one variable results in an increase (or decrease) in the other variable.
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Reverse Relationship
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Reverse causality (did one cause 2 or 2 cause 1)
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Inverse Relationship
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Increase in one variable causes a decrease in the other variable.
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Non-linear Relationship
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Lacking proportionality between two related variables
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No Relationship
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Random or null results.
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Approach
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Perspective adopted in analyzing a problem (set of assumptions).
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Process
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An examination of the logic, dynamics and implications of a relationship between two variables.
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Value Statement*
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Ideological statement of preference that is stated in a way that cannot be tested.
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Hypothesis*
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Propositions stated so they can be test empirically. Should only have independent and dependent variable.
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Indicator*
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Identifies the evidence used to describe a variable, part of the operational definition (Consists of concept plus error).
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Operational Definition*
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A restatement of a concept so that it can be tested empirically; a reference to the operations to be used in measuring the concept.
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Measurement Validity*
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The extent to which a researcher accurately identifies all theoretical dimensions of the construct.
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Reliability*
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Degree to which a measurement gives the same result under all circumstances.
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Sensitivity*
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A function of the measure's precision or calibration
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