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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Best explanation for Clever Hans' (the horse) math ability
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Cued by his owner
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Which is not true of scholarly journal articals?
a) Manuscripts are peer reviewed b) Reviewers do not know owner's identity c) Published studies rarely identify their own strengths and weaknesses d) Manuscripts contain extensive footnotes and/or references e) Published articles contain the most recent information available |
E
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Nominal variable & rules for categorizing, maybe some examples
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A variable that is identified by qualitative features. To categorize:
Categories used to classify attributes must be mutually exclusive All categories used to represent data must be equivalent Must be exhaustive One example would be a repeated coin toss, and the number of heads versus number of tails |
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Rank order is associated with which type of data? Can be either by numbers or by "good" "bad" and all
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Ordinal
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Can a measure be valid withut being reliable?
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NO
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Scale rating is associated with which type of data
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Interval
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Five sections to every published study
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Rationale
Lit review Methods Results Discussion |
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Things a published study has
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A title
An abstract Intro/rationale Lit review Hypothesis Section on methods |
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Talk about the section on methods
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Design statement - a single-sentence description of the type of experiment
Subjects/participants - description of sample group(s) Method of selection Demographics regarding subjects Equipment/apparatus (description of equipment) Procedures |
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Procedures - explain all involved in this part (hint; think of what section has the procedures listed)
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In methods section, the procedures is a step-by-step description of the procedures, which includes:
A cover story if needed and instructions for the subjects Operationalization of dependent variables Measurement of dependent variables A debriefing And results (entails data treatment, data analysis, tables/graphs/charts, significance or lack thereof of data, discussion, and references) |
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Three pillars of experimental research (for the simplest type of experiment)
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Manipulation, measurement, and control
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Manipulation
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Independent variable, usually conditions - involves varying participant attributes, or experimental stimuli. Hypothesized to have direct effect on depndent variable (outcome), and analogous to "cause" in cause-effect relationship, measurement, and control
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Measurement
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Focuses on dependent variable, involves measurement (this is where data comes from). Value changes based on influence of independent variable, analogous to effect in cause-effect relationship
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Control
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Involves holding all factors constant and controlled, icnluding the confounding, extraneous, or intervening variables (note that confounding variables can't always be prevented, but they can be controlled)
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Research
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The studious inquiry or examination, especially the investigation or experimentation, aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws
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Epistemology (also its characteristics)
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Way of knowing
Scientific/quantitative (seeks to be objective, often relies on large samples of people) Humanism/qualitative (very subjective, or based on opinions) |
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Steps of the scientific method
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Theories
Predictions/hypothesis Observations Empirical generalizations |
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Talk about theories
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A theory is a proposed explanation for a set of natural phenomena, capable of predicting future phenomena
Should be able to explain or describe natural phenomenon in attempt to satisfy natural curiosity Must be testable in empirically (empiricism is the belief that science is only accepted as much as phenomenon can be "sensed" by average person) |
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Go more indepth on predictions/hypothesis(-es)
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A hypothesis is a conclusion that occurs at the end of a series of propositions (proposition - statement that either confirms or denies something)
Antecedent - an "if" statement Consequent - a "then" statement (this and antecedent make up a proposition) Argument - hypothetical propositions help us get here, a set of propositions where one folows as a conclusion from the others |
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List some writing don'ts
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Don't begin with a cliche ("In today's society ...")
Don't use "very" a lot - highly or extremely is much better No big words or run-ons, go for short, concise sentences Spell out numbers less than 10 - 10 and up are numerical Avoid cliches Avoid split infinitives ("To go boldly .." vs "To boldy go ...") Don't end a sentence with a preposition No slang or coloquialisms |
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How is most modern research done (groups and such)?
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Subjects are assigned randomly to control or treatment group - treatment gets exposted to experiment, control doesn't, and the research studies the differences between the two groups
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Self-selected groups
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Groups based on choices already made by members (like democrats vs republicans)
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Dyadic adjustment scale
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Paper-pencil survey that asks respondents to rate quality of relationship with significant other
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So statistical tests for significance are important - what are scientists usually content with?
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5 % chance of risk (p < .05)
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Steps to beginning research project
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Identifying question/topic, clarifying research question and generating list of key terms, locating potential sources of information, and organizing and evaluating the information, and citing sources
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Clarifying research question and generating list of key terms - what do you need to do?
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State topic in form of a question
Identify key terms and topics Generate a list of key term synonyms to search for background information |
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Locating potential sources of information (best things to use, and criteria for world wide web)
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Best to use handbooks and subject encyclopedias, as well as electronic databases
World wide web criteria for examining credibility: accuracy (lack of errors), authority (author with credentials, .org or .gov), currency (date it was created), and objectivity (perhaps a mission statement of the website, no hidden bias) |
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Organizing and evaluating information
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Use a list of key terms, and review all reference sources
Complete source record card for each source Review abstract and then each discussion Read bibliographies for additional sources |
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Title page formatting and such
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Goes on top of the document itself, has a running head (series of words on every page followed by page number on upperhand right corner, half an inch from top and right side), the title is in the very center, and al margins are 1 inch, but since everything is centered it doesn't matter
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Abstract
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Second page of APA paper, has 1 inch margins all around, except for running head. "Abstract" is centered at the top line, and is "left justified"
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Reference page format
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Running head, "references" is centered 1 inch from top of page, and then references listed hanging indent, APA
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First actual page of paper
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Third overall page, contains text related to paper, as well as title centered and double-spaced below running head (new paragraphs are always indented_
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Variables
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Ingredients of research product, any entity that can take on a variety of different values
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Attributes
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Specific categories of a variable
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Value
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Numerical designation assigned to each variable for statistical analysis (age, but sometimes a number needs to be assigned)
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Relationship
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Connection or correspondence between two variables (can be positive or negative)
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Difference types (there are 2)
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Either in kind (football player vs cheerleader) or in degree (more interested in this when two groups have differing degrees of a variable)
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Independent variable
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Manipulated part of reserach (how it impacts dependent variable)
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Dependent variable
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Not manipulated, but recorded or measured
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Intervening variable
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Variable whose presence may impact relationshi between dependent and independent variables
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Antecedent variables
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Something that already exists that can affect study, even if it doesn't directly come up
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Nominal variable (three rules of categorizing included)
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Make up variable level that is identified b qualitative features. Rules for categorizing:
Categories must be mutally exclusive (one person in only one category) All categories used to represent data must be equivalent Must be exhaustive |
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Ordinal variable
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Allows for us to rank order attributes with regards to which has more or less of an atribute (qualitative and quantitative - must be mutually exclusive, researcher has to follow logical ordering, and each category has to be balanced)
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Interval variable (and the three types of scales)
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Quantitative, in logical order representing equal distances between levels of each category.
Likert scale - participants presented with statements and then asked to respond based on pre-existing scale Semantic differenetial - consists of series of opposing adjectives (good/bad) and then a continuum of possible choices between them as participants are asked to select number that represents their perception between the two adjectives |
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Ratio data
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Mostly like an interval, but it can have an absolute zero starting point
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Primary mission or research
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The manipulation, measurement, and control of variables
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Main units of analysis for communication
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Individuals (temperament, personality, or communication traits, or specific behaviors)
Dyads (getting information on two people in an interpersonal relationship) Groups (seeing conflicts and all go in groups) Organizations (workplaces, anything that can study various groups) |
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Operationalization
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Transplanting abstract concept into tangible, observable form in experiment (includes variations in stimulus conditions, levels or degrees, variations based on standardized tests, or "intact"/self-selected groups
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Relate the terms concrete and abstract to dependent variables
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Concrete - relatively fixed, unchanging
Abstract - dynamic, transitory (like mood, occupation) |
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Dichotomus variables
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Like true/false, male/female
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Ordered variables
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Mutually exclusive categories with an order, sequence, or hierarchy (fall to winter to spring to summer)
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Continuous variables
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Includes constant increments or gradations that can be arithmetically compared (IQ scores, age, heart rate)
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Unit of analysis
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Specific entity being examined (the individual, dyad, group, organization, or culture)
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Ecological fallacy
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Drawing conclusions about individuals based on group data (a "sweeping generalization")
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Mediating variable
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2nd or 3rd variable that experimenter knows about, can increase relationship betwixt independent and dependent variable
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Ethnocentrism
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Concept that one's own nation is the center of the universe, and other nations are inferior
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Measurement, plus its two most important considerations
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Process of systematic obsrevation and assignment of numbers to phenomena according to rules (process is defined as a set of progressive, independent steps - we must find out what phenomenon we are trying to measure)
Two most important considerations: procedures employed in observationa nd rules employed in assignment of numbers |
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Conceptualization
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Development and clarification of concepts or your germinal idea (when you take germinal idea and determine what it is you want to measure and if you can realistically measure it)
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Latent, or hypohetical, variable
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Variable reseracher cannot directly observe that is inferred from other observable phenomena
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On constructing questions
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Start with twice as many items as you need
Every item should reflect construct Use concise, clearly worded, unambiguous items Construct relatively short items Pay attention to terminology in items Avoid emotionally loaded items Avoid leading and loaded items Avoid double questions and questions with false premises Avoid used always and never Avoid double negatives/positives Avoid hypothetical questions and ambiguous pronoun references Consider recall issues for certain types of items |
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One-tailed vs. two-tailed hypothesis
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Predicts specific nature of relationship or difference vs. one that predicts there is a significant relationship or difference without indicating specific nature
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Null hypothesis vs directional research question vs nondirectional research question
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NH has zero differences or zero relationships (we test it when we can prove statistic is false, as opposed to true, so it's the opposite of a real hypothesis), and is written as H0
A directional RQ is when a researcher asks if a there is a significant difference between two or more variables or positive or negative relationship between two or more variables Nondriectional RQ - when a researcher asks if there is a difference or relationship between two or more variables |
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Difference between a hypothesis (define) and a research question
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A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about nature of relationship between two or more variables that represents an educated guess about results of an experiment, always held tentatively
A research question is a hypothesis in question form |
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Experimental hypothesis
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Prediction that there will be statistically significant findings, as in a significant correlation between the groups or variables
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Phrasing a hypothesis
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Avoid vague or nebulous wording, must be testable and falsifiable, should be fairly specific
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Reliability, and scalar reliability
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Accuracy that measure has in producing stable, constant measurements
Scalar reliability is the reliability of individual research scales |
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Ways in which reliability can be increased
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Item construction - use more ambiguous items
Length of instrument - get more of an item Administration of test - needs to be administered under standard, well-controlled situations |
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Most commonly used type of reliability
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Cronbach's alpha reliability
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Validity, face/content validity, criterion, and predictive
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Degree to which instrument measures what it is intended to measure
Face/construct - subjective, examines content to see whether on its "face" it appears to be related to what research wants to measure Criterion - how accurately a new measure can predict well-accepted criterion or previously validated concept Predictive - whether or not person's score on new measure can predict future scores on another method |
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Concurrent, retrospective, and construct/factoral validity
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Concurrent - researcher obtains score for new measure and score for criterion measure at same point and then determines correlation
Retrospective - occurs when researcher has previously measured criterion and then attempts to relate it to newly developed measure at later time Construct/factoral - validity test of theoretical construct (also using known groups is another approach. Factoral validity is based on "factor analysis", the highly sophisticated statistical technique for examining how many items there are in an instrument that correlate with each other) |
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Threats to validity - describe them
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Inadequate preoperational explication of concepts - when individual hasn't determined what scale is supposed to measure
Mono-operation bias - only measuring once Interaction of different treatments - when subject is doing something else on the side to affect results Interaction of testing and treatment - combined effect of being measured multiple times combined w/ receiving treatment that can alter scores as a result of test awareness Restricted generalizability across constructs - how restricted measure is across different constructs Confounding constructs & levels of constructs - whether or not you are measuring one or more constructs, or multiple levels of constructs |
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Social threats to validity
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Hypothesis guessing - participants guess what research is attempting to measure and act accordingly
Evaluation apprehension - people get anxious when they know they're being evaluated Experimenter expectancies - experimenter unknowingly influences score by encouraging certain responses Social desirability bias - when participant changes answers/behavior to be seen in "better light" |
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Can a measure be reliable but not valid? What about the other way around?
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A measure CAN be reliable but not valid, but it has to be reliable to be valid
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Minor factors that can affect results
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Faking, as in always saying yes or just acting differently to affect results
Social desirability "Screw you" effect Response set - any tendency that causes person to give different responses to test items than they would if presented in a different form Bad items on measure |
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If I knew a really cool hot girl named Malyssa, I would...
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ASK HER OUT!! :P
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