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131 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Pseudoscience
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a set of ideas, often presented as science, but actually based on a nonscientific theory. Pseudoscience is typically founded on faith, belief or untested metaphysical claims.
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Methods of acquiring knowledge
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ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions
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method of tenacity
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information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.
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Method of intuition
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information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or gut feeling.
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method of authority
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a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area
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method of faith
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a variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure, and therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge.
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rational method of rationalism
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involves seeking answers by logical reasoning.
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Logical reasoning
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premises describe acts or assumptions that are presumed to be true.
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Argument
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a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion.
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empirical method or empiricism
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uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge.
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Scientific method
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is an approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers.
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induction, or inductive reasoning
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involves using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.
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Variables
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are characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals. For example, the weather, the economy, and your state of health can change from day to day. Also two people can be different in terms of personality, intelligence, age, gender etc
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Research Hypothesis
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a specific, testable prediction that is derived from a hypothesis. Always refers to a specific situation or an event that can be directly observed.
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Deduction or deductive reasoning
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uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific example.
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Hypothesis
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in the context of science, a --- is a statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables. A hypothesis is not a final answer but rather a proposal to be tested and evaluated.
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testable hypothesis
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is a hypothesis for which all of the variables, events and individuals are real and can be defined and observed.
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Refutable hypothesis
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a hypothesis that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, the hypothesis allows the potential for the outcome to be different from the prediction.
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Participants
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individuals who take part in research studies.
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Subjects
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nonhuman individuals who take part in research studies.
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Replication
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Repetition of a research study with the same basic procedures used in the original study. The intent of replication is to test the validity of the original study. Either the replication will support the original study by duplicating the original results, or it will cast doubt on the original study by demonstrating that the original result is not easily repeated.
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Abstract
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A brief summary of the research study totaling no more than 120 words.
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Basic research
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Research studies that are intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge.
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Applied Research
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Research studies that are intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.
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Database
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A computerized cross-referencing tool that focuses on an individual topic area (such as psychology); used for searching the literature for articles relevant to a topic.
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Discussion section
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The portion of a research report that restates the hypothesis, summarizes the results, and presents a discussion of the interpretation, implications, and possible applications of the results.
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Introduction
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The first major section of a research report, which presents a logical development of the research question including a review of the relevant background literature, a statement of the research question or hypothesis, and a brief description of the methods used to answer the question or test the hypothesis.
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Literature search
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The process of gaining a general familiarity with the current research conducted in a subject area, and finding a small set of journal articles that will serve as the basis for a research idea and will provide the justification or foundation for new research.
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Method section
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The section of a research report that describes how the study was conducted including the subjects or participants, the apparatus or materials, and the procedures used.
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Primary source
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A first-hand report of observations or research results written by the individual(s) who actually conducted the research and made the observations.
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PsycArticles
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A computerized database for searching the psychological literature that contains the full text of the original publication.
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PsycInfo
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A computerized database for searching the psychology literature for articles relevant to a research topic. PsycInfo provides abstracts or summaries for each publication.
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Reference section
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The section of a research report that lists complete references for all sources of information cited in the report, organized alphabetically by the last name of the first author.
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Results section
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The section of a research report that presents a summary of the data and the statistical analysis.
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Secondary source
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A description or summary of another person''s work, written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations discussed.
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Subject words
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Term used to identify and describe the variables in a study. Subject words are used to search through publications.
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Title
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A concise statement of the content of a paper that identifies the main variables being investigated.
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Accuracy
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The degree to which a measure conforms to the established standard.
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Behavioral measure
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A measurement obtained by the direct observation of an individual''s behavior.
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Ceiling effect
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The clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of increases in value; a type of range effect.
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Concurrent validity
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The type of validity demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from a more established measure of the same variable.
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Construct validity
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The type of validity demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. Construct validity is based on many research studies and grows gradually as each new study contributes more evidence.
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Constructs
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Hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory. Also known as hypothetical constructs.
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Convergent validity
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The type of validity demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from two different methods of measuring the same construct.
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Desynchrony
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Lack of agreement between two measures.
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Divergent validity
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A type of validity demonstrated by using two different methods to measure two different constructs. Then convergent validity must be shown for each of the two constructs. Finally, there should be little or no relationship between the scores obtained for the two different constructs when they are measured by the same method.
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Face validity
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An unscientific form of validity that concerns whether or not a measure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure.
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Floor effect
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The clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value; a type of range effect.
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Hypothetical constructs
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See constructs.
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Inter-rater reliability
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The degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of a behavior.
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Interval scale
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A scale of measurement in which the categories are organized sequentially and all categories are the same size. The zero point of an interval scale is arbitrary.
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Negative relationship
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In a correlational study, when there is a tendency for two variables to change in opposite directions.
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Nominal scale
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A scale of measurement in which the categories represent qualitative differences in the variable being measured. The categories have different names but are not related to each other in any systematic way.
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Operational definition
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A procedure for measuring and defining a construct. An operational definition specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of the hypothetical construct.
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Ordinal scale
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A scale of measurement on which the categories have different names and are organized sequentially (for example, first, second, third).
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Parallel-forms reliability
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The type of reliability established by comparing scores obtained from alternate versions of a measuring instrument of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.
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Physiological measure
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Measurement obtained by recording a physiological activity such as heart rate.
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Positive relationship
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In a correlational study, when there is a tendency for the two variables to change in the same direction.
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Predictive validity
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The type of validity demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory.
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Range effect
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The clustering of scores at one end of a measurement scale. Ceiling effects and floor effects are types of range effects.
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Ratio scale
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A scale of measurement in which the categories are sequentially organized, all categories are the same size, and the zero point is absolute or nonarbitrary.
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Reliability
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The degree of stability or consistency of measurements. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement procedure will produce identical (or nearly identical) measurements.
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Scale of measurement
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The set of categories used for classification of individuals. The four types of measurement scales are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
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Self-report measure
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A measurement obtained by asking a participant to describe her own attitude, opinion, or behavior.
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Split-half reliability
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A measure of reliability obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and then measuring the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants.
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Test-retest reliability
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The type of reliability established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.
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Theories
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In the behavioral sciences, statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.
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Validity (of a measurement procedure)
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The degree to which the measurement process measures the variable it claims to measure.
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Validity (of a research study)
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The degree to which the study accurately answers the question it was intended to answer.
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Active deception
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The intentional presentation of misinformation about a study to its participants. The most common form of active deception is misleading participants about the specific purpose of the study. Also known as commission.
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Anonymity
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The practice of ensuring that an individual''s name is not directly associated with the information or measurements obtained from that individual. Keeping records anonymous is a way to preserve the confidentiality of research participants.
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APA Ethics Code
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A common set of principles and standards on which psychologists build their professional and scientific work. This Code is intended to provide specific standards that cover most situations encountered by psychologists. Its primary goal is the welfare and protection of the individuals and groups with whom psychologists work.
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Belmont Report
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A summary of the basic ethical principles for protecting humans in research published in 1979 by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subject in Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Today''s federal regulations for protecting human participants is based on the Belmont Report.
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Clinical equipoise
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The ethical issue requiring clinicians to provide the best possible treatment for their patients, thus limiting research to studies that compare equally preferred treatments.
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Commission
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See active deception.
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Common Rule
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The Code of Federal Regulations, Title 45, Part 46 (1991) which is based on the principles of the Belmont Report and provide a common set of federal regulations for protecting human participants. It is use by review boards.
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Confederate
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A person who pretends to be a participant in a research study but actually is working for the researcher to create a false environment.
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Confidentiality
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The practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or measurements obtained from an individual during a research study. APA ethical guidelines require researchers to ensure the confidentiality of their research participants.
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Consent form
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A written statement by the researcher containing all of the elements of informed consent and a line for the participant''s signature. The consent form is provided prior to the study so that potential participants have all the information they need in order to make an informed decision regarding participation.
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Consent form
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A written statement by the researcher containing all of the elements of informed consent and a line for the participant''s signature. The consent form is provided prior to the study so that potential participants have all the information they need in order to make an informed decision regarding participation.
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Debriefing
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A postexperimental explanation of the purpose of the study. A debriefing is given after a participant completes a study, especially if deception was used.
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Deception
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The purposeful withholding of information or misleading of participants about a study. There are two forms of deception: passive and active.
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Ethics
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The study of proper action.
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Fraud
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The explicit efforts of a researcher to falsify and misrepresent data. Fraud is unethical.
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Informed consent
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The ethical principle requiring the investigator to provide all available information about a study so that a participant can make a rational, informed decision regarding whether or not to participate in the study.
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Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
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A committee that examines all proposed research with respect to its treatment of nonhuman subjects. IACUC approval must be obtained prior to conducting any research with nonhuman subjects.
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Institutional Review Board (IRB)
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A committee that examines all proposed research with respect to its treatment of human participants. IRB approval must be obtained prior to conducting any research with human participants.
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National Research Act
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A set of regulations for the protection of human participants in research, mandated by Congress in 1974.
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Nuremberg Code
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A set of 10 guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participants in research. The Nuremberg Code, developed from the Nuremberg Trials in 1947, laid the groundwork for the current ethical standards for medical and psychological research.
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Omission
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See passive deception.
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Passive deception
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The intentional withholding or omitting of information whereby participants are not told some information about the study. Also known as omission.
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Peer review
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The editorial process that many articles undergo when a researcher submits a research report for publication. In a typical peer review process, the editor of the journal and a few experts in the field of research review the paper in extreme detail. The reviewers critically scrutinize every aspect of the research with the primary purpose of evaluating the quality of the study and its contribution to scientific knowledge. Reviewers are also likely to detect anything suspect about the research or the findings.
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Placebo effect
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A participant''s response to an inert medication or treatment that has no real effect on the body, but which occurs simply because the individual thinks it is effective.
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Plagiarism
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Presenting someone else''s ideas or words as one''s own. Plagiarism is unethical.
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Research ethics
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The responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who may be affected by their research studies or their reports of the studies'' results. Researchers are usually governed by a set of ethical guidelines that assist them to make proper decisions and choose proper actions. In psychological research, the American Psychological Association maintains a set of ethical principles for research.
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Accessible population
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The easily available segment of a target population. Researchers typically select their samples from this type of population.
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Biased sample
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A sample with different characteristics from those of the population.
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Cluster sampling
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A probability sampling technique involving random selection of groups instead of individuals from a population.
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Convenience sampling
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A nonprobability sampling method involving selection of individuals on the basis of their availability and willingness to respond; that is, because they are easy to get. Occasionally called accidental sampling and haphazard sampling.
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Law of large numbers
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In the field of statistics, this principle that states that the larger the sample size, the more likely it is that values obtained from the sample will be similar to the actual values for the population.
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Nonprobability sampling
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A method of sampling in which the population is not completely known, individual probabilities cannot be known, and the selection is based on factors such as common sense or ease with an effort to maintain representativeness and avoid bias.
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Population
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The entire set of individuals of interest to a researcher. Although the entire population usually does not participate in a research study, the results from the study will be generalized to the entire population. Also known as target population.
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Probability sampling
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A sampling method in which the entire population is known, each individual in the population has a specifiable probability of selection, and sampling is done using a random process based on the probabilities.
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Proportionate random sampling
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See proportionate stratified random sampling.
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Proportionate stratified random sampling
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A probability sampling technique that involves identifying specific subgroups to be included, determining what proportion of the population corresponds to each group, and randomly selecting individual samples from each subgroup such that the proportion in the sample exactly matches the proportion in the population. Also known as proportionate random sampling.
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Quota sampling
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A nonprobability sampling method; a type of convenience sampling involving identifying specific subgroups to be included in the sample and then establishing quotas for individuals to be sampled from each group.
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Random process
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A procedure that produces one outcome from a set of possible outcomes. The outcome must be unpredictable each time, and the process must guarantee that each of the possible outcomes is equally likely to occur.
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Representative sample
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A sample with the same characteristics as the population.
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Representativeness
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The extent to which the characteristics of the sample accurately reflect the characteristics of the population.
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Sample
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A set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to represent the population in a research study.
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Sampling
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The process of selecting individuals to participate in a research study.
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Sampling bias
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See selection bias.
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Sampling methods
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The variety of ways of selecting individuals to participate in a research study. Also known as sampling techniques or sampling procedures.
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Sampling procedures
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See sampling methods.
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Sampling techniques
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Sampling techniques
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Selection bias
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When participants or subjects are selected in a manner that increases the probability of obtaining a biased sample. A threat to external validity that occurs when the selection process produces a sample with characteristics that are different from those in the population. Also known as sampling bias.
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Simple random sampling
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A probability sampling technique in which each individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of selection.
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Stratified random sampling
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A probability sampling technique involving identifying specific subgroups to be included in the sample, then selecting equal random samples from each pre-identified subgroup.
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Systematic sampling
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A probability sampling technique in which a sample is obtained by selecting every nth participant from a list containing the total population after a random start.
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Target population
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A group defined by a researcher''s specific interests; see population.
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Coefficient of determination, r2
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The squared value of a correlation that measures the percentage of variability in one variable that is determined or predicted by its relationship with the other variable.
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Correlation
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A statistical value that measures and describes the direction and degree of relationship between two variables. The sign (+/-) indicates the direction of the relationship. The numerical value (0.0 to 1.0) indicates the strength or consistency of the relationship. The type (Pearson or Spearman) indicates the form of the relationship. Also known as correlation coefficient.
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Correlation coefficient
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See correlation.
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Criterion variable
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In a correlational study, a researcher often is interested in the relationship between two variables in order to use knowledge about one variable to help predict or explain the second variable. In this situation, the second variable (being explained or predicted) is called the criterion variable.
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Monotonic relationship
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A consistently one-directional relationship between two variables. As one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase or tends to decrease. The relationship can be either linear or curvilinear.
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Multiple regression
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A statistical technique used for studying multivariate relationships. The statistical process of finding the linear equation that produces the most accurate predicted values for Y using more than one predictor variable.
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Pearson correlation
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A correlation used to evaluate linear (straight-line) relationships.
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Predictor variable
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In a correlational study, a researcher often is interested in the relationship between two variables in order to use knowledge about one variable to help predict or explain the second variable. In this situation, the first variable is called the predictor variable.
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Regression equation
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The equation from a regression analysis.
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Scatter plot
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A graph that shows the data from a correlational study. The two scores for each individual appear as a single point in the graph with the vertical position of the point corresponding to one score and the horizontal position corresponding to the other.
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Spearman correlation
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A correlation used to evaluate monotonic relationships.
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