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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the two types of research with respect to the researcher's primary goal?
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The immediate goal of basic research is to understand a psychological phenomenon rather than to solve a particular problem.
Applied research aimed to find solutions for a certain problem rather than to enhance genial knowledge. Evaluation or program research is a type of applied research. |
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What are the two ways scientists test their theories/hypothesis?
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Post hoc is an explanation made after the fact. It provides little evidence of a theory's accuracy or usefulness.
A priori research makes specific predictions about what will occur in a study. |
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What are the way to derive a hypothesis from a theory?
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Deduction is used when researcher start with a theory or model and then derive testable hypotheses from it. Usually several hypothesis can be dedicated from a particular theory. It is from theory to hypothesis.
Induction is used when researchers develop hypotheses from observed facts, including pervious research findings. It is from specific observation to general theory. |
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What is evaluation or program research?
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It is applied research that uses behavioral research methods to assess the effects of social or institutional programs on behavior.
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What are the two ways to define a concept in research?
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Conceptual definition: is like the definition we find in a dictionary. It is an abstract concept that is derived from the theory.
Operational definition: specifies precisely how to concept is measured or induced in a particular study. It is research related. It describes how the conceptual variable is manipulated or measured in a particular study. |
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What are the methodological categories of behavioral research?
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1. Descriptive Research: It DESCRIBES the behavior, thoughts, feelings if a particular group of individuals.
2. Correlational Research: It investigates the RELATIONSHIP among various psychological variables. 3. Experimental Research: it is used when researchers are interested in determining whether certain variables cause changes in behavior, thought or emotion. The researchers manipulates or changes one variable to see whether changes in behavior occur as a consequence. 4. Quasi-Experimental Research: researchers study the effect of a variable that occurs naturally or manipulate independent variables but not able to control all factors. |
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What is empirical generalization?
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Hypothesis that is based on previously observed patterns.
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What is empiricism?
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It repress to the practice of relaying on observation to draw conclusions about the world.
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What is falsification?
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It is the hallmark of science. The hypothesis has to be stated so that it allows for the possibility of falsification.
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What is the file drawer problem?
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The failure to publish studies that obtain null findings.
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What is a hypothesis?
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It is an if-then statement that is based on a theory. It is derived from a theory to get closer to the truth.
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What is methodological pluralism?
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To use many different methods and designs to test a hypothesis.
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What is the difference between theory and model?
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Theory explains how and why to variables are related. The model only describes how the variables related.
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What is null finding?
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Results showing that certain variables are not related.
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What is pseudoscience?
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It refers to evidence that appears to be scientific but infect violates basic criteria of scientific investigation -
1. systematic (structure observations in a systematic way) and empirical evidence (relaying on observation), 2. public verification (findings are replicable), 3. solvable problems (questions can be answered give current knowledge and techniques) |
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What is the strategy of strong inference?
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It is a research design that simultaneously tests for opposing predictions if two theories.
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What is a theory?
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It is a set of propositions that attempts to explain the relationship between a set of concepts.
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What is a confound?
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It is a variable that interacts with the independent variable to alter the outcome of the study.
It casts doubt to the study and the explanation and questions the study's validity. It also means that the operational definition of the independent variable is not accurate therefore the study is not measuring what it is suppose to. It is something specific. |
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What are the different methods for replication?
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1. Conceptual
2. Exact |
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What is conceptual replication?
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When the same conceptual variable manipulated a different way. With supporting outcome it increases the confidence in the theory (construct or concept validity).
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What is the result of the exact replication?
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Increases the confidence in the findings under the same operation definition.
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What is Statistical Conclusion Validity?
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The relationship between the variables are real or a result of an error (Type I and Type II).
Statistical conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions about the relationship among variables based on the data are correct or ‘reasonable’. |
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What is interaction?
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It explains more the variance than the main effects.
It is more specific and defined. |
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How is science defined?
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It is empirical, (measurable, observable) and replicable.
Inconsistency motivates research. |
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What does behavioral sciences and psychology study?
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Behavioral variability (causes and correlates of behavior) Its changes across situations, amongst individuals, over time.
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What is descriptive statistics?
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It is used to summarize and describe the behavior of research participants. Can't use to make inferences from it for other groups only to the one under study.
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What is inferential statistics?
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It is a statistics that is used to analyze variability in the data to answer questions about the reliability and generalizability of the findings.
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What is variance?
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It is a statistical index of variability.
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What parts of the variance can be broken down to?
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Systematic: the variance that is related to the variable under investigation
Error: it is the variance that is due to unidentified sources |
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What is effect size?
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Is is a statistics that expresses the strength of the relationship between variables. It is the proportion of the variance shared by the two variables in paired data.
In correlation = Coefficient of Determination (Pearson's r squared) |
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What is meta analysis?
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It is used to determine the strength of the relationship (effect size) between variables across many studies. More accurate.
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What is the range?
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It is use to explain variability. It is the highest number-lowest number.
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What are the different types of measures?
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1. Observational (direct observation of a behavior)
What are the different types of measures? 1. Observational (direct observation of a behavior) 2. Physiological (internal processes that are not directly observable) 3. Self-report (replies people give to questionnaires and interviews) a, Cognitive b, Affective c, Behavioral |
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What are the different scales of measurement?
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1. Nominal
2. Ordinal 3. Interval 4. Ratio Higher levels of scales provide more information than lower levels. |
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What is a nominal scale?
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The number that is assigned is essentially just a label.
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What is an ordinal scale?
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It involves the rank ordering of a set of behaviors or characteristics. It only tells about the relative order between the participants but not about the relative distance.
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What is an interval scale?
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Equal distances between the numbers represent equal differences between measured attributes. However, it does not have a true 0 therefore the numbers cannot be multiplied or divided.
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What is a ratio scale?
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It has a true 0 and involves real numbers (can be multiplied and decided)
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What is reliability?
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Refers to the consistency or dependability of a measuring technique
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What is a "true score"?
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It is the score that the participant would have obtained if our measure were perfect and we were able to measure whatever we were measuring without error.
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What is measurement error?
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It is a component of the participants observed score that a the result of distorting factors
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What are the factors contributing to measurement errors?
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1. Transient state of the participants (mood, fatigue, anxiety)
2. Stable attributes of the participants (motivation) 3. Situational factors (researcher's friendliness) 4. Characteristics of the measure (ambiguous questions) 5. Mistakes in recording participant's response |
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How to assess a measures Reliability?
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It involves analysis of variance. It is the proportion of total variance in the data that true-score variance (systematic variance) versus measurement error (try-score variance/total variance).
It give statistical power. Variance of the relationship/ total variance. |
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What are the methods used to estimate reliability of a measure?
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1. Test-retest (consistency over time)
2. Interitem Reliability (consistency over elements of the test) 3. Interrater Reliability (consistency over raters/observers) |
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What is Test-Retest Reliability?
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It is the consistency of participants' responses on a me sure over time. However, it only make sense when assessing a stable trait.
It is determined when measuring participants on two occasions usually separated by a few weeks. |
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What is Interitem Reliability?
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It assesses the degree of consistency among items on a scale.
1. Item-total Correlation - it is the correlation of the item and the sum of all other items on the scale. Should exceed .30 2. Split-half Reliability - Items on the scale are divided into two and correlation calculated between them. Should exceed .70 3. Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient - It is the average of all possible split-half reliabilities. Should exceed .70 |
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What is Interrater Reliability?
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The consistency between two researchers who observe and record participants' behavior.
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How can reliability be increased?
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1. Standardized administration
2. Clarify instructions and questions 3. Train observers 4. Minimize errors in coding |
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What is validity?
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Refers to the extend to which a measurement actually measures what it is intended to.
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What are the three types of validity?
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1. Face
2. Construct 3. Criterion-related |
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What is face validity?
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Refers to the extend to what a measure appears to measure what it isn intended to. It involves the judgment of the researcher.
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What is construct validity?
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It is assessed by seeing wether a particular measure relates as it should to other measures (correlation).
1. Convergent Validity - The measure correlate to another measure 2. Discriminant Validity - It doesn't correlate |
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What is criterion related validity?
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It assesses the relationship between the measure and the behavioral outcome.
It refers to the extend to which a measure allows us to distinguish between participants on a bases of a particular behavioral criterion (grade or IQ scores). 1. Concurrent (two measures are administered roughly at the same time) 2. Predictive (ability to distinguish between people sometime in the future) |
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What is test bias?
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It occurs when a particular measure is not equally valid for everybody who takes it.
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What are the different kinds of measures used in behavioral research?
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1. Observational
2. Physiological 3. Self-report 4. Archival methods |
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What is naturalistic vs contrived observation?
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Naturalistic (participant observation) involves observations as it occurs naturally. Contrived observation is observing behavior in a arranged setting.
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What is disguised observation?
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In disguised observation -to minimize reactivity (the fact that people don't act naturally when they are being watched)
i, the researcher blends in a becomes part of the group ii, the researcher can recruit a knowledgable informant iii, Use unobtrusive measures (collecting liquor bottles from garbage) |
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What are the different kinds of behavior recording?
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i, Narrative - unstructured observation method (full description of the participants behavior)
ii, Checklist - structured observation method, iii, temporal measures - latency / duration, iiii, observational rating scale |
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What is the measures of latency?
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how much time elapsed i, reaction time ii, task completion time iii, inter-behavioral latency - time elapsed between two behaviors
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What is measured by duration?
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It measures how long a behavior lasted (talk time)
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How can quality or intensity of a behavior measured?
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on a scale
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What are self-report approaches?
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i, questionnaire (single vs multi item)
ii, interview |
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What are the guidelines to writing good questionnaires?
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1. Specific and precise and simple wording
2. No assumptions about the test takers 3. Conditional information should precede the key idea 4. Don't use double-barrel questions 5. Chose appropriate response format (free response/ rating scale/multiple choice) 6. Pretest the items |
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What are the pros and cons of naturalistic observations?
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pro - observed in their natural environment - no reactivity con - researcher lose objectivity - researcher influences the behavior by interacting with the participants - no control over confounds
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What are the pros and cons of contrived observations?
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pro - observed in naturalistic setting (lab - undisguised or more natal setting - disguised) - researchers can set up a situation con - problem obtaining informed consent (disguised) - sometimes reactivity (undisguised) - no control over confounds
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What are the different classifications of physiological measures?
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1. Neural electrical
2. Neuroimaging 3. Autonomic arousal 4. Biochemical processes (blood, saliva) 5. Observable physical reaction |
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What are the different response formats for self-report?
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1. Free response
2. Rating scale 3. Multiple choice |
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What i social desirability?
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It is the desire of people to respond to questions in a way that convey a socially desirable impression.
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What is content analysis?
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A set of procedures designed to turn textual data into numerical form that can be analyzed.
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What is archival data method best suited to study?
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1. Historical social and psychological phenomena (significant events in the past)
2. Social and behavioral changes over time 3. Pictorial representations of social phenomenon 4. When large amount of data is needed |
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How can social desirability bias be minimized?
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It can never be totally eliminated.
1. Questions should be worded as naturally as possible 2. Observer should be unobtrusive 3. Ensure confidentiality |
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What are the advantaged of questionnaires over interviews?
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1. Less expensive
2. Less training is required from administrator 3. Les time consuming (can administer to a groups of people at once) 4. Anonymity can be maintained |
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What are the advantages of interview?
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1. Can be administered to illiterate and to children
2. Can be ensured that participant understands the question 3. Detailed information can be obtained |
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How can interrater reliability be increased?
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1. Using clear and precise operational systems
2. Practice |
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What is Ickes' dyadic interaction paradigm?
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It is originally used to observe two person social interaction. Ickes recorded their interaction in the waiting room but the recording was not looked at and analyzed until informed consent was obtained. It is bypassed the reactivity and social desirability.
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