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316 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
  • 3rd side (hint)
Do Exergonic reactions occur spontaneously or non spontaneously?
Spontaneously
Which side of the reactions does endergonic reactions favor?
Reactants
The light reactions of photosynthesis are taken place in which part of the cell?
Thylakoid
The dark reactions of photosynthesis are taken place in which part of the cell?
stroma
glycolysis is taken place where?
Cytoplasm
The capacity to do work and the potential to cause change is the definition to what key term?
Energy
Comes from the sun, is really all around us in reality! Hope this helps!
What are the four forms of biological energy talked about in energy lecture
Chemical (Bonds), Electromagnetic (light), Concentration gradients
heat
(Potential/kinetic)
4 types, then the general names of the 2.
Chemical energy and concentration gradients exhibit what kind of energy?
Potential, or stored energy
Electromagnetic energy and heat are defined as what kind of energy?
Kinetic
Energy that has been captured and stored is the definition for what term?
Potential energy
Energy of motion is the definition for what term?

I.E Thermal (random molecular motion) and Electromagnetic (light--photons)
Kinetic Energy
In biology, potential energy is seen as what?

*Stored energy is correct, be more specific.*
Chemical bonds
Concentration gradients
Mainly stored energy
In biology, kinetic energy is seen as what? (Types of energy)
Heat (thermal)
Light
Mechanical
3 things, types of energy
To biologists, energy means what? (definition)
The capacity to do work, or the potential to cause change
What does the first law of thermodynamics state?
Energy can not be created, nor destroyed.
Energy can be converted and can change form
In a closed system, During an energy transaction, does the amount of total energy change?
No
Energy being converted or changing form is the basis of what law?
First law of Thermodynamics
The concept that energy can not be created, nor destroyed is the basis of what law?
First law of Thermodynamics
What does the second law of thermodynamics state?
Entropy increases over time.
Energy that cannot do work, or is understood to be disorder, is what?
Entropy
Are energy transactions 100% efficient?
No
Can heat be completely converted to work?
No
The concept that usable energy decreases when energy transactions take place and more disorder occurs is covered under what law?
Second law of Thermodynamics.
The Total Energy, H, of a reaction is known as what term?
Enthalpy
What does the G mean in the equation
(Δ represents "The change in")

ΔG = ΔH - T(ΔS)
Free energy
What does the S stand for in the equation

ΔH = ΔG + T(ΔS)
Where <> represents "The Change in" the variable
Entropy
disorder
What is T, absolute temperature, measured in?
Kelvin
ºC + 273 is used for converting Degrees Celsius, ºC, to what?
Kelvin
The sum of the usable energy and the unusable energy in a reaction is known as what?
The total energy of the reaction
What is the equation to find the change in enthalpy of a reaction?

*Note: Use Δ(Delta) to show "The Change In"* Also solve for the change in enthalpy in the equation
ΔH = ΔG + T(ΔS)
Δ symbolizes delta!
What is a main intent, or good, of the quantitative expression? Why do we care, or value, what is stated in it?

*Note that this is in the lecture notes, Heart felt explanations are nice... but frankly short and sweet are better.*
Quantitative expression allows us to predict the outcome of chemical reactions
Spontaneous changes occur with an increase or decrease in entropy?
Increase
Free energy changes predict what?
The state at equilibrium
In exergonic reactions, is the change in free energy , ΔG, positive or negative?
negative
Exergonic reactions tend to be what?
Spontaneous
In exergonic reactions, equilibrium strongly favors which side of the reaction/equation?
Products
In endergonic reactions, the change in free energy, ΔG, is positive or negative?
positive
Endergonic reactions tend to be what?
Non spontaneous
+ ΔG represents what type of reaction?

(Δg represents the change in free energy)
Endergonic
- ΔG represents what type of reaction?

(ΔG represents the change in free energy)
Exergonic
If the change in free energy, ΔG, is negative, which side of the reaction does it favor?
Products
Δ symbolizes delta.
In endergonic reactions, equilibrium strongly favors which side of the reaction/equation?
Reactants
If the change in free energy, ΔG, is positive then this reaction will occur how?
Non spontaneously.
If the change in free energy, ΔG, is negative then this reaction will occur how?
Spontaneously
If a reaction occurs spontaneously, then equilibrium would strongly favor which side of the reaction/equation?
Products
In biology, are most/many reactions reversible?
yes
A + B <-----> C + D

This reaction shows that this type of reaction can be, or is what?
Reversible
Look at the arrowheads in the reaction. bingo, I know right?
In a reversible reaction, how is the equilibrium point determined: What does it depend on?
The equilibrium depends on the concentration of the reactants and products, and the free energy changes.
Spontaneous reactions are simply referred to as an equilibrium shift to what?
The right
Non-Spontaneous reactions are simply referred to as an equilibrium shift to what?
The left
The concentration of the reactants and products, as well as the free energy change of a reversible reaction determines where what is at?
Equilibrium
Energy must be supplied in order for this type of reaction to occur. What is the type of reaction?
Endergonic
Energy is released during this type of reaction, what is the type of reaction?
Exergonic
If the reaction is exergonic does the graph of the reaction has negative or positive slope?
Negative slope
If the slope of the change in free energy, ΔG of a reaction is positive, signifying a specific type of reaction, then the reaction does what with energy?
Absorbs it
If the slope of the change in free energy is decreasing then this type of reaction does what with energy?
Releases it
Where is the constant energy input that helps life overcome the effects of the second law of thermodynamics from?
The sun
What is the ultimate source of energy on Earth, what grants us this energy?
Light from the sun
Biological systems are subject to the second law of thermodynamics, meaning energy must be supplied to drive endergonic reactions. Where do biological systems get this energy to drive their reactions?
The sun and other exergonic reactions
Energy section of the Lecture notes.
What process, in plants, captures solar energy to convert radiant energy to chemical energy?
Photosynthesis
Are humans able to make glucose by the intake of solar energy and carbon dioxide? Why or why not?
No, because we do not have chloroplasts to undergo photosynthesis!
Silly, it's easy
Where do humans get their energy?
Food molecules
(we extract energy from food!)
When animals extract energy from food, what is that energy used for?
Fueling endergonic reactions
The release of energy from one molecule to fuel the reactions of other molecules is known as what term?
Coupled reactions
Coupled reactions usually use Adenosine Triphosphate, ATP, for what major resource of all life?
Energy
ATP is typically referred to as the what of the cell
Energy currency
How is energy acquired from ATP?
The breaking bonds, hydrolysis, of ATP releases energy to be used by the cell
The breaking of bonds is the definition to what term?
Hydrolysis
In biology, many reactions are reversible. If hydrolysis of ATP releases energy, then what does synthesis of ATP do?
It requires energy throughout the reaction, or absorbs energy
In biology, many reactions are reversible. If hydrolysis of ATP releases energy, then what does condensation of ATP do?
It requires energy, or absorbs energy
In biology, many reactions are reversible. If the breaking of ATP bonds release energy, then what does dehydration of ATP do?
It requires energy, or absorbs energy
When ATP is broken down, what molecules are formed?
ADP + Pi
When the hydrolysis of ATP occurs, ADP and Pi are formed. What is Pi?
Inorganic Phosphate
Energy from exergonic reactions fuel the formation of ATP, and water is added to break down the bonds of ATP forming ADP + Pi + Energy. What is this cycle called?
ATP cycle
Is the Hydrolysis of ATP endergonic or exergonic?
Exergonic
Does the hydrolysis of ATP have a negative, or positive change in free energy?
Negative
Does the breaking down of ATP occur spontaneously, or non-spontaneously.
Spontaneously.
Knowing that the hydrolysis of ATP has this specific type of change in free energy, which side of the reaction/equation would equilibrium favor?
Products
What is the energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP used to do?
Drive endergonic reactions
ATP + water -----> ADP + Pi + energy

What is the change in free energy, ΔG, for this reaction? Is this Endergonic, or Exergonic?

*Note: check your notes.*
-7.3 kcal/mol
Exergonic
This is in the lecture notes. Check the energy section. Location is up to you, you will learn better by looking it up.
Is the synthesis of glutamine endergonic or exergonic? What change in free energy does this represent?
Endergonic
Positive change
Do exergonic reactions occur quickly?
No
Do spontaneous reactions occur quickly?
No
What term is used to tell about the rates of reactions?
Kinetics
Energy lecture
Does thermodynamics tell about the rates of reactions?
No
An initial energy barrier is usually dubbed/called this term
Activation Energy
Activation energy determines what about reactions?
The rate of the reaction
Before any new bonding can occur what must occur?
existing chemical bonds must be broken
What do both endergonic and exergonic reactions have in common? Energy wise.
Both Endergonic reactions and Exergonic reactions require activation energy.
What are two methods to lower activation energy, mentioned in lecture?
Adding heat to increase the energy of reactants and using a catalyst
Energy lecture, It is in there!
An object, molecule, or enzyme used to speed up a chemical reaction by means of lowering activation energy is termed as what?
A catalyst
The catalysts of biological reactions are known to be what?
Enzymes
What do enzymes do in a biological reaction?
Speed up the reaction without being consumed.
Enzymes associate with one of more substrates in a reaction. What is a substrate?
The molecule that undergoes the reaction
How do catalysts, such as enzymes, lower activation energy?
Catalysts destabilize existing chemical bonds by putting stress on those bonds, bending them
Can catalysts make endergonic reactions proceed spontaneously?
No
What process in plants uses light energy (Known as photons) to make organic compounds such as sugar?
Photosynthesis
The losing of electrons is keyed as what term?
Oxidation
In biological systems, the process of oxidation is usually called?
Dehydrogenation's
The gaining of electrons is known as what term?
Reduction
Why are oxidation and reduction reactions usually called 'Redox reactions?'
Oxidation and reduction are usually coupled together, therefore the two words were just combined
What controls the direction of electron flow in redox reactions?
Affinity for electrons
What is the definition of oxidation?
The losing of electrons
(Called dehydrogenation in biological systems)
What is the definition of reduction?
The gaining of electrons
Molecules that can be reversibly oxidized and reduced are known by this term?
Electron carriers
What are electron carriers able to do with electrons?
Accept and donate electrons
Electron carriers vary in their affinity for electrons.. Do they arrange by increasing or decreasing affinity for electrons?
increasing
A long series of electron carriers who are arranged by affinities are called what?
Electron Transport chains (ETC)
What has a gradual release of energy that can be captured?

This energy captured allows for maximum synthesis of ATP
Electron Transport chain (ETC)
Electron Carrier A has affinity of 2, Electron Carrier B has affinity of 4, and Electron Carrier C has affinity of 1. Place these in order of how they would be found in nature, and show which direction an electron would flow.
C -----> A ------> B

Or

B <----- A <------ C
What allows for the maximal synthesis of ATP?
the capture of the gradual release of energy from electron transport chains
what is it called when we take H_2_O and break it up to make H+ and O2?
Oxidation
Is the oxidation of water endergonic or exergonic? What does this mean about ΔG?
Endergonic
ΔG is positive, meaning that energy is required to oxidize it
During photosynthesis, Carbon Dioxide is reduced to what monosaccharide? Is this endergonic or exergonic? ΔG?
Glucose
Endergonic
Positive ΔG
Where does photosynthesis occur on the plants? Think larger
In the chloroplast, typically located in the leaf of the plant.
What organelle is mainly involved in photosynthesis?
The chloroplast
The structure of chloroplast is highly important to the capability to perform photosynthesis. What are the two structures within the chloroplasts that are important to photosynthesis? Which reactions occur in those structures?
The thylakoid (Light reactions)
The stroma (Dark reactions)
The thylakoid must be intact in order for the light reactions to occur. In the long run, this fact means what to the process of photosynthesis?
ATP and NADPH would not be formed, photosynthesis would not occur.
The thylakoid must maintain what potential energy source in order for photosynthesis to occur?
H+ concentration gradient
A compartment in the chloroplast where soluble reactions occur
Stroma
Creates enclosed compartments within disks
thylakoid
The light reactions occur where?
The thylakoid
The thylakoid does which part of photosynthesis?
The light reactions
Where does the plant get the energy to oxidize water and reduce carbon dioxide if both reactions are endergonic?
The energy comes from the sun's photon light
The light reactions require what as an energy source?
Light
Describe the process of the light reactions of photosynthesis
Water is oxidized to eventually produce ATP and NADPH with O2 as a byproduct.
Where do the dark reactions of photosynthesis take place?
The stroma of the chloroplast
Which cycle discussed in lecture is the cycle used in photosynthesis to make glucose?
The Calvin-Benson Cycle
What is used in the dark reactions of photosynthesis? Tell where the stroma received these items to be used.
ATP and NADPH (from light reactions)
Carbon Dioxide (from the outside air)
what is it called when carbon dioxide is reduced in the stroma?
Carbon fixation
Describe the process of the dark reactions of photosynthesis
ATP and NADPH are used to reduce carbon dioxide (carbon fixation) in the Calvin-Benson Cycle to produce NADP+, ADP, and organic molecules such as glucose
What do the light reactions in the thylakoid member produce?
ATP
Oxygen
NADPH
What does the Calvin cycle in the stroma use and what are the end products?
Uses: carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH

Makes: NADP+, ADP, and carbohydrates (sugars)
Pigments are important because they do what?
Absorb light energy.
The absorbance spectrum, or action spectrum determines what for pigments?
determines the color and activity level of the pigments
Light reactions are organized into two parts. They allow the absorption of a photon which promotes an electron to a higher energy level. What are the two parts called?
Photosystems

PS1 and PS II
When an electron is in a excited state, or a higher energy level, that higher energy level is known to be what kind of energy?
Potential
The photosystems do what in relation to the electron transport chain?
Photosystems absorb light that sends electrons down the electron transport chain. The pigment is oxidized and the 1st electron carrier is reduced
Electrons lost in PS-I are replaced by electrons from where?
Photosystem II (PS-II)
The two photosystems are connected how?
By the electron transport chains
The oxidation of water is the ultimate source of what for PS-II?
Ultimate source of electrons
Describe the process of PS-I
NADP+ gets oxidized into NADPH. NADPH reduces carbon dioxide
What is PS-II's, photosystem two's, electron transport chain involved in making?
ATP
What absorbs light in the photosystems?
Chlorophyll
The H+ flow across the membrane through ATP synthase, releasing energy is known to be what term?
Chemiosmosis
Describe the process that happens after PS-II absorbs 2 photons. End with PS- I
The 2 photons excite 2 electrons. The electrons pass through electron transport chains to PS-I
Which photosystem has one of it's electron transport chain (ETC) members be a proton pump?
PS-II
(Photosystem 2)
A member of the electron transport chain is a proton pump. What does this pump create?
A concentration of H+ in the thylakoid
The member of the electron transport chain (ETC) that is a proton pump uses which kind of transport to move protons?
Active transport
What happens when photosystem I's chlorophyll absorbs 2 photons?
Two excited electrons are passed to NADP+,reducing it to NADPH
What is NADPH used to do in the dark reactions?
Reduce carbon dioxide
How does photosystem I replace it's lost electron?
PS II replaces it
The protein gradients produced by the electron transport chains have this type of energy
Potential
Energy can be use to synthesize ATP from ADP + Pi (endergonic reaction), but what does the reaction require?
ATP Synthase enzyme (located in the membrane)
What does the ATP synthase enzyme do?
Acts as a channel for protons
Uses an energy gradient
Catalyzes the reaction ADP + Pi ---> ATP
Inorganic phosphate is phosphate lacking what?
oxygen
The dark reactions are not really light independent because why?
The dark reactions use ATP and NADPH synthesized from the light reactions. Indirectly light does play a role
What does the dark reactions synthesize?
Sugars
The converting of carbon dioxide to organic sugars is know by what term?
Carbon Fixation
In order to make 1 new sugar molecule (of 6 Carbons = glucose), how many carbon dioxide should be used?
6 CO2 molecules.
When incorporating the 6 CO2 molecules, how many can be incorporated at a time?
one
How many reactions must occur in order to complete the Calvin-Benson cycle?
6 times. 6 CO2 must be ran 1 at a time in order to synthesize the 6 carbon carbohydrate, glucose.
The Calvin-Benson cycle has 3 main steps, what are these steps?
Carbon fixation:
Reduction of carbons
Regeneration of starting materials
Where does the cell retrieve it's carbon used in carbon fixation?
CO2 taken from the outside air
The reduction of carbons has electrons added, where do these electrons come from?
The electrons come from NADPH
In the Calvin cycle, which reactions are driven by ATP from the light reactions.
Endergonic reactions... (Dark reactions)
The reduction of carbons in the Calvin cycle synthesize what?
organic molecules (simple sugars)
The regeneration process of the Calvin Benson cycle completes the cycle.. What is the ending result?
RuBP
Is the direct product of the Calvin cycle glucose?
No
What is the direct product is the Calvin cycle?
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
In order to produce glucose, the Calvin cycle must feed other reactions. true or false?
True
Does doing each reaction once complete the Calvin cycle?
no
What is the intermediate (starting material) of the Calvin Cycle?
RuBP (5 carbon)
RuBP + CO2 yield how many carbon?
6
Describe the process of carbon fixation
RuBP + CO2 yields a 6 carbon intermediate which immediately breaks into two 3 carbon molecules (exergonic.. PGA molecules)
RuBP + CO2 yields a 6 carbon intermediate which immediately breaks into two 3 carbon molecules (exergonic.. PGA molecules).. What is this process?
Carbon Fixation
What is the final product in Carbon fixation?
two 3-phosphorglycerates ( 2 PGAs)
This process has ending productions being two PGA molecules.. what is this process?
Carbon fixation
The reduction of PGA uses what two reducing agents?
NADPH (source of electrons)
ATP (drives endergonic reactions)
What is the product of PGA reduction?
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. (G3P)
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, is the product of what reduction process?
the reduction of PGA
What is G3P used to make?
Glucose, RuBP, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides, etc.
How many molecules of G3P are needed to make Glucose?
2 G3P are needed to make 1 glucose.

2 x 3-carbons (G3P) = 6 carbon (Glucose)
Are other intermediates useful to the synthesis of glucose from G3P?
yes
Carbon fixation and the reduction of PGA must occur how many times in order to complete one 'complete' cycle.

*Complete meaning regeneration of RuBP*
6
After each reaction takes place 6 times (in the Calvin cycle), how many products are seen? Name the products and the amount.
12 G3P molecules.
What are the 12 G3P used for after the Calvin cycle?
2 G3P (=6 carbon) molecules for glucose synthesis, leaving 10 G3P (=30 Carbon) molecules to regenerate 6 molecules of RuBP
What number of carbons are needed to remake 6 molecules of RuBP?
30 carbons
What is the relation between regenerating RuBP and making glucose via the G3P molecules formed.
In the Calvin Cycle, 2 G3P molecules are formed per cycle, so the cycle occurs 6 times forming 12 G3P molecules. 2 of those molecules are used to form glucose (6 carbon) and the rest (30 carbon) are used to regenerate RuBP
To make glucose and recycle RuBP, how many fixations and reductions are required?
6
What is the source of all organic carbon in a terrestrial ecosystem?
carbon fixation
The Calvin Cycle (carbon fixation) feeds other biosynthetic pathways such as?
It makes fats and lipids from intermediates, makes more complex sugars, and makes ribose sugars from DNA precursors
Macromolecules rely on carbon fixation. True or False?
True
The sum of all chemical reactions in an organism is the meaning of what term?
Metabolism
Metabolic reactions usually occur how?
in steps
Metabolic can also be refered to as this.
Biochemical.

I.E: Metabolic (or biochemical) pathways
There are how many types of metabolic reactions? Discussed in lecture.
Two. (Anabolic and catabolic)
One type of metabolic reaction is an anabolic reaction. What is an anabolic reaction?
The building up of molecules (consumes energy)
A reaction that builds up molecules and consumes energy is referred to as what type of metabolic reaction?
Anabolic
Where are enzymes embedded?
The membrane of cells (In our case for photosynthesis)
The breaking down of molecules, releasing energy, is the basis of what metabolic reaction?
catabolic
One type of metabolic reaction is catabolic. What does catabolic mean?
Catabolic means to break down molecules, releasing energy.
Metabolism involves glycolysis and cellular respiration. True or false.
true
Cellular respiration is the reverse of what process?
photosynthesis
photosynthesis is the reverse of what process?
cellular respiration
What is the biochemical pathway of breaking down simple sugars
Cellular respiration
A way to describe cellular respiration is a series of what?
catabolic reactions
Cellular respiration extracts energy to make what?
ATP
What is the overall reaction taken place in cellular respiration?
Glucose + 6 O2---> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
We need energy to create order.. How do we get this energy?
We get energy by converting food to energy. The oxidation of glucose is exergonic and releases energy slowly
why doesn't sugar blow up in our home cabinets?
There is an activation energy and it has a controlled oxidation
What are the stages of glucose oxidation?
Glycolysis
Oxidation of pyruvate
Kreb's cycle
chemiosmosis/electron transport chain
Why is glycolysis not considered to be cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria, glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis doesn't need oxygen, where cellular respiration does.
The kreb's cycle also goes by what names?
TCA and citric acid cycle
is ATP synthesis exergonic or endergonic?
Endergonic
Where is the energy from glucose oxidation used?
In the synthesis of ATP
Substrate level phosphorylation uses what kind of phosphate?
organic
Oxidative phosphorylation uses what kind of phosphate?
inorganic
This type of phosphorylation starts with an organic molecule that has a phosphate group. It transfers that phosphate group directly to ADP, forming ATP. This phosphorylation occurs during glycolysis and kreb's cycle
substrate-level phosphorylation
Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?
Occurs in the mitochondria during cellular respiration
What does oxidative phosphorylation require?
An intact mitochondria
Electron transport chain
If the mitochondria was not intact, what would cease to function?
Oxidative phosphorylation and eventually cellular respiration
What is the final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation?
O2
What are the 2 mechanisms of ATP synthesis?
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation.
In glycolysis, what is the starting material?
Glucose
In glycolysis,"", what is the end product?
pyruvate
3 carbon carboxylic acid = ?
pyruvate
how many pyruvate makes 1 glucose?
2
Glycolysis forms 2 main components that are used for other reactions.. What are these components.

*One is made via substrate-level phosphorylation.. the other is an electron carrier)
ATP and NADPH
Glycolysis results in the accumulation of _____ and the depletion of ______
NADH
NAD+
NAD+ is required for what?
Glycolysis
NADH ---> NAD+ can be recycled at minimum, or bonus glycolysis?
Minimum
Pyruvate can be processed further if 'bonus" or minimum glycolysis occurs?
bonus
(obtains more energy)
The fate of NADH and pyruvate after glycolysis depends on what?
the presence or absence of O2
After glycolysis, if O2 is present then the reaction is aerobic.. It also means what about the fate of the NADH and pyruvate?
cellular respiration will occur, which will have the complete oxidation of glucose.
After glycolysis, if O2 is absent, then the reaction is anaerobic, meaning what for the fate of NADH and pyruvate?
Fermentation will occur
Which is only the partial oxidation of glucose.
What does aerobic mean?
Presence of O2
What does anaerobic mean?
Absence of O2
What do cellular respiration and fermentation regenerate in order to keep glycolysis running?
NADH
How many ATP can fermentation make?
2
In fermentation, organic molecules accept electrons from what?
NADH
An example of an organic molecule that accepts electrons from NADH is
pyruvate or a derivative of it
Fermentation has 3 end results, depending on the cell that is fermenting, what are the 3 resultants?
Lactic Acid
Ethanol
2 ATP
How is ethanol produced from fermentation?
CO2 is removed from pyruvate, making Acetaldehyde, then Oxide NADH and reduce acetaldehyde, forming ethanol.
How is lactic acid formed from fermentation?
Simply oxide NADH and reduce pyruvate to form lactic acid
Why do cells bother to ferment?
It is easy, quick, and supplies sufficient energy if glucose is plentiful.

It also allows further energy production under anaerobic conditions (2 ATP)..
What product from fermentation is used in glycolysis?
NADH is oxidized to NAD+ during fermentation, which is a must to continue glycolysis.
Do humans ferment?
Yes, in the absence of O2
What do humans ferment to? and what can this lead to in the absence of O2?
Humans ferment lactic acid. ferment glucose to lactic acid, which builds up and causes muscle soreness.
The complete oxidation of glucose occurs in steps. List the steps.
1. Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
2. Feeds into Krebs cycle
3. Electron transport chain/chemiosmosis
Electrons harvested by entire processes are used to reduce NAD+ to what?
NADH
What are harvested by entire processes to reduce NAD+ to NADH?
Electrons
NADH feeds electrons into what?
Electron transport chains.
Electron transport produces what kind of gradient?
Proton
The proton gradient formed from electron transport is used by what to synthesis ATP?
Chemiosmosis
Chemiosmosis uses the proton gradient formed from electron transport to synthesize what?
ATP (ATP synthase)
The ATP synthesized in cellular respiration (by chemiosmosis) is synthesized via what type of phosphorylation?
Oxidative
Potential energy used to make sugars are occur in which reaction?
dark reactions
Capturing photons to convert to chemical potential happens where?
Light reactions
Do enzymes alter of change the reaction?
No
What do enzymes do to the kinetics of a reaction?
Speeds it up. Enzymes are Catalysts.
Activation energy means?
The input of energy in order for a reaction to occur
The total energy =?
Free energy + entropy
(sued energy + wasted energy)
Facilitated diffusion releases what kind of energy?
Potential
Why are there tons of ATP Synthase embedded in the membrane?
They release the hydrogen so it doesn't get too concentrated in the thylakoid disk space.
NADP+ ______ molecules, whereas NADPH ______ molecules.
Oxidizes
reduces
What would happen if PSI was taken out of the system?
Unable to excite the electron transfer chain in PSII, taking energy away from B6F, expiring it.
If B6F was taken out, what would occur?
No protons would enter the system, ATP synthesis would stop, causing the dark reactions to stop.
Are ATP and NADPH necessary to have in order to do the dark reactions?
Yes
Photosynthesis forms sugars, what does respiration do?
Breaks down sugars to make CO2 and H2O
In order to drive glycolysis, what kind of agent must be present?
Oxidizing
What is the product of glycolysis?
Pyruvate (remove CO2 soon after)
Where is the enzyme that catalyzes oxidation for the oxidation of pyruvate located?
Inner membrane of mitochondria
removing CO2 also goes by the tern?
Decarboxylation
Describe the oxidation of pyruvate.
Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA (bonds to coenzyme-A) by removing carbon. Yields 1 NADH (oxidation)..

All this is preparation of Kreb's cycle.
What is preparation for the Krebs cycle?
The oxidation of pyruvate
Where does the output of the oxidation of pyruvate occur?
In the mitochondrial matrix
In the output of the oxidation of pyruvate, what is the products per 1 glucose output?
2 NADH
2 CO2
Where does the Krebs cycle take place?
In the mitochondrial matrix
What is a main benefit of reducing electron carriers (NADH, FADH2)?
Harvesting electrons for ETC
What does decarboxylation do?
produces more CO2
The Krebs cycle produces a small amount of ATP directly via what?
Substrate level phosphorylation
Electrons harvested from all previous steps (Cellular respiration) are carried by what molecules?
NADH and FADH2
NADH feeds electrons to what member of the chain?
1st
FADH2 feeds electrons to what member of the chain?
2nd
Each step in the ETC is endergonic, or exergonic?
Exergonic
ETC members for cellular respiration are located where?
ETC members are proteins embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
Proteins that are embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. are defined by what term?
ETC members
How many proton pumps does a mitochondrial ETC contain?
3 proton pumps
What is the final electron acceptor at the end of the ETC in the mitochondria?
O2
Protons pumped into the space between the membranes forms a what?
proton gradient
Theoretically the activation of a proton pump produces what kind of energy for one ATP
potential
What part of the mitochondria is the ATP synthase located?
inner membrane
what are the functions of the ATP synthase?
it is a proton channel
it is an enzyme to the ATP synthesis reaction.
A mechanism to oxidative phosphorylation
What does the ATP synthase use to synthesis ATP?
A proton gradient
What else is the proton gradient in mitochondria used for?
Other endergonic reactions
Phosphorylation of ADP is ______ by the mitochondria ATP synthase?
catalyzed
A large membrane protein of multiple subunits
ATP synthase
What does the ATP synthase do during a reaction? What is the type of engine
Rotates, rotary engine.
This acts as a selective channel for protons in the mitochondria
ATP synthase
This protein/enzyme uses energy from the proton gradient to drive reactions
ATP synthase
In glycolysis, the oxidation of glucose gives what products?
2 ATP
2 NADH (6 ATP)
In respiration, the oxidation of pyruvate yields what products?
2 NADH (6 ATP)
Acetyl-CoA
In respiration, acetyl- CoA forms what 2 things?
2 ATP
TCA
In respiration, TCA forms what end resultants?
6 NADH (18 ATP)
2 FADH2 ( 4 ATP)
Overall, how many ATP are formed (theoretically) in respiration?
36.. The process forms 38, but the transport of NADH from the cytoplasm via active transport requires about 2 ATP
How many ATP are really yielded from respiration?
about 30 ATP. After all the other process are finished and the ATP used in other processes are subtracted out. 38 ATP - 8 ATP 30
Alpha-ketoglutarate feeds into which cycle?
Krebs
In the oxidation without O2, some prokaryotes can use inorganic molecules as electron acceptors. These replace oxygen how?
They replace oxygen as the final electron acceptor.
Name some examples that would replace oxygen as the final electron accept in oxidation without O2
Sulfur
Nitrate
Methane
Oxidative phosphorylation only occurs where?
The mitochondria
Substrate-level phosphorylation only occurs where
Cytoplasm
Where does photophosphorylation get its energy?
Light, or photons.
Can we get potential energy out of every chemical bond?
No, all bonds have potential energy, but some we can not retrieve
Is carbon fixation exergonic or endergonic? Is this a redox reaction?
It is exergonic, and it not redox.
Krebs cycle completes the oxidation of what molecule?
Glucose