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62 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Memory
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Th capacity to store and retrieve information
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Implicit memory
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Memory processes bring past knowledge to bear on new interpretations
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Explicit memory
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Making a concious effort to recover information
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Declarative memory
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Recollection of facts and events
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Procedural memory (knowledge compilation)
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How to do things (with practice, we are able to carry out longer sequences of the activity without concious intervention)
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Encoding
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Initial processing of information that leads to a representation in memory. Requires mental representations
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Storage
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The retention over time of encoding material, requires short and long-term memory
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Retrieval
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Recovery at a later time of the stored information
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Iconic memory (Eidetic imagery)
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A memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of info to be stored for brief durations (photographic memory)
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Short Term Memory
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A built-in mechanism for focusing cognitive resources on some small set of mental responsibilities.
-George Miller, 7 +/- 2 -> memory span |
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Rehearsal
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Repetition of information to increase memorization (part of short term memory)
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Chunking
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The process of reconfiguring items by grouping them on the basis of similarity or some other principle, or combining them based on info in long-term memory (part of short-term memory)
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Working Memory
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The memory resource that you use to accomplish tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension
-Alan Baddeley, 3 components: -->Phonological loop: speech based -->Visuospatial sketchpad: visual and spatial information -->Central executive: control attention and coordinates info from other two |
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Long-term Memory
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The store-house of all the experiences, events, info, emotions, skills, words, rules, etc. that have been acquired
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Retrieval cues
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the stimuli available as you search for a particular memory
-->Retention interval - a period of time over which you must keep the information in memory |
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Recall & Recognition
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Recall - To reproduce the information to which you were previously exposed.
Recognition - the realization that a certain stimulus event is one you have seen or heard before |
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Episodic and Semantic Memories
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Endel Turving -> 2 declarative types
1.Episodic memories preserve individually the specific events that you have personally experienced 2. Semantic - generic, categorical memories, such as the meanings of words and concepts |
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Encoding Specificity
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Memories emerge most efficiently when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding
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The serial position effect
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In a list, remember beginning and end best. Demonstrates primacy and recency effect
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Contextual Distinctiveness
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The role context plays in producing the shape of the serial position curve (related to primacy, recency effect)
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The process of encoding/ retrieval
-Levels of processing theory -Transfer-appropriate processing -Priming |
-The deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be committed to memory
-Memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding transfers to the processes required at retrieval -First experience primes memory for later experiences ***Ability to remember will be greatest when there is a good match between the circumstances in which encoding and retrieval occur |
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Ebbinghaus
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Forgetting = rapid initial loss of memory followed by a gradually declining rate of loss
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Proactive and retroactive interference
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Proactive - circumstances in which information you have acquired in the past makes it more difficult to acquire new info
Retroactive - acquisition of new information makes it harder to remember older info |
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Improving Memory
-Elaborative rehearsal -Mnemonics |
-While you are rehearsing information - while you are first committing it to memory - you elaborate on the material to enrich the encoding
-Mnemonics - devices that encode a long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoded information (provide with efficient retrieval cues) |
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Metamemory
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how memory works or how you know what information you possess
-J.T. Hart "feelings-of-knowing" -Cue familiarity hypothesis - people base feelings of knowing on their familiarity with the retrieval cue -Accessibility hypothesis - base judgements on availability of partial info from memory |
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Long-term Memory -> Memory Structures -> Categories and Concepts
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Concepts - the mental representations of the categories you form
-> Family resemblance plays a role in judgements of typicality (more likely to recognize more typical) Basic Level - the level at which people best categorize and think about objects |
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Schemas
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Conceptual frameworks, or clusters of knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations.
-"Knowledge packages" that encode complex generalizations about the environments |
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How people use conceptual memory
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Prototype - a representation of the most central or average member of a category (recognize by comparison)
Exemplars - recognize an object by comparing it to the exemplars (examples) you have stored in memory |
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Reconstructive memory
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Reconstructing the information based on more general types of stored knowledge
-Sir Frederic Bartlett - how prior knowledge influences the way one remembers new information -Leveling - simplifying -Sharpening - Highlighting and overemphasizing -Assimilating - changing details to better fit one's background |
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Elizabeth Loftus
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Eyewitnesses memories for what they had seen were quite vulnerable to distortion from past event information
-Misinformation effect - acquiring new information that can interact with orginal memories |
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Cognition/ Cognitive psychology
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Cognition - all forms of knowing
Cognitive psychology - the study of cognition (cognitive science) |
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F.C. Donders
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To study "speed of mental processes"
-Stimulus categorization vs. response selection => reaction time |
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Serial and parallel processes
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Serial procceses - take place one after the other
Parallel processes - overlap in time -Limited processing distributed by attention processes |
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Controlled and automatic processespp
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Controlled processes require attention, automatic don't
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Language Production and audience design
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Language production - what people say and the processes they go through to produce the message
Audience design - conscious awareness of audience to whom will be directed and what to share |
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H. Paul Grice
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Cooperative principle - an intruction to speakers that they should produce utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of ongoing conversation
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Herbert Clark
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Language users have different bases for their judgements of common ground:
-Community membership - strong assumptions about what is likely to be mutually known -Copresence for actions - assume that actions and events shared with other conversationalists become part of common ground -Perceptual copresence - when speaker and listener share some perceptual events (sights, etc) |
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Lexical and structural ambiguity
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Lexical - ambiguity in the meaning of a word
Structural - one sentences (pharse), two meanings ***Both involve use of contextual information ---Match between production and understanding - audience design |
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Washoe, Gardner and Gardner, 1969
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Simplified American Signing
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Sarah, Premack, 1971
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Manipulated symbols
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Sue Savage-Rumbaugh, 1998
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Worked with bonobos (Kanzi and Mulika) - acquired meanings of plastic symbols spontaneously (by observing humans and bonobos)
-have some but not all of human processing |
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Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth, 1990
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Studied vervet monkeys - audience design (knowledge of what other people know) does not exist in other species
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Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf
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Differences in language create differences in thought
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Types of IQ tests
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-The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Lewis Terman - base for intelligence quotient
IQ = mental age/chronological age * 100 -The Wechsler Intelligence Scale: David Wechsler - combined verbal with nonverbal subtests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - various age group options) --WAIS-III - adults --WISC-IV - children --WPPSI-III - Infants |
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Psychometrics
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Field of psychology that specializes in mental testing in any of its facets. Examine statistical relationships
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Different Views on Intelligence
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Raymond Cattell - general intelligence broken into
1). Crystallized intelligence - already acquired knowledge/ assessibility 2). Fluid intelligence - ability to see complex relationships and solve problems J.P. Guilford - Structure of intellect, 3 types of intellectual tasks: 1). Content 2). Product 3). Operation Robert Sternberg - three types of intelligence - analytical (basic information, processing skills, mental processes), creative (ability to deal with novel versus routine problems), and practical (management of day-to-day affairs. Ability to adapt to new contexts and select contexts and shape environment to needs) Howard Gardner - 8 intelligences spanning human experience. -Emotional intelligence - ability to 1. Percieve, appraise, express emotions 2. Use emotions to facilitate thinking 3. Understand/ analyze emotions 4. Regulate emotions -Related to Gardner's inter and intrapersonal intelligences |
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Heredity and IQ
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Henry Goddard - 1900s - advocated mental testing of all immigrants and the "selective exclusion" of those who were found to be "mentally defective" - heridity determines intelligence
Heritability estimate - the proportion of the variability in test scores on that trait that can be traced to genetic factors. |
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Claude Steele, 1997
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People's performance on ability tests are influenced by stereotype threat (the threat of being at risk for confirming a negative stereotype of one's group)
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Developmental Psychology
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Area of psychology concerned with changes in physical and psychological functioning that occur from conception across the entire life span
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Normative Investigations
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Seek to describe a characteristic of a specific age or developmental stage
-Developmental age - chronological age which most people show the particular level of physical or mental development demonstrated by that child (vs. actual chronological age) |
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Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional Design
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Longitudinal - individuals repeatedly observed and tested over time
Cross-sectional - groups of participants of different chronological ages, observed and compared at the same time |
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Babies pre-wired for survival
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-Infants well suited to respond to adult caregivers and to influence their social environments
->Can hear even in utero ->Vision - turn in direction of voice and searching for noise. Robert Fantz - babies as young as 4 months old prefer looking at objects with contours rather than those that were plain, complex ones rather than simple, and whole faces rather than in disarray |
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Jean Piaget (1929, 54, 77)
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Theories of the ways children think, reason, and solve problems
->Schemas - mental structures that enable individuals to interpret the world ->Sensorimotor intelligence - initial schema -Assimilation and Accommodation work together to create cognitive growth 1. Assimilation - modifies new environmental info to fit what's already known (existing schemas 2. Accomodation - restructures or modifies child's existing schemes so new info is more completely learned Four ordered discontinuous stages: 1. Sensorimotor stage - Object permanence - children's understanding that objects exist and behave independently of their actions and awareness 2). Preoperational stage - improved ability to represent mentally objects that are not present ->Egocentrism - can't take perspective of another person ->Centration - attention captured by more perceptually striking features of objects 3). Concrete operations stage - mental operations, actions performed in the mind that give rise to logical thinking ->Conservation - know that the physical properties of objects do not change when nothing is added or taken away, even though the objects' appearants change. ->Reversibility - physical and mental actions/ operations can be reversed 4). Formal operations stage - thinking becomes abstract |
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Lev Vygotsky
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Role of social interactions in cognitive development. Children develop through internalization - absorb knowledge from their social context that has a major impact on how cognition unfolds over time
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LANGUAGGEEE!!!!
Perceiving Speech and Words |
Phonemes - minimal meaningful units in a language - infant must take note of first
Child-directed speech - obnoxious baby voice. GOOCHIE GOOCHIE GOOO!!! Keeps da babbyy interested Noam Chomsky - grammer acquisition is somewhat biological Dan Slobin - operating principles constitute the child's language-making capacity (operating principles take form of directives -> 2 word stage, etc.) Over-regulation - when learning language, apply newly learned concept to everything (past tense, etc.) |
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Social development
Erik Erikson |
How individuals social interactions and expectations change across their life
Erikson - every individual must successfully navigate a series of psychological stages, each of which presented a particular conflict of crisis 8 stages: 1. Trust vs. mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. self-doubt 3. Initiative vs. guilt 4. Competence vs. inferiority 5. Identity vs. role confusion 6. Intimacy vs. isolation 7. Generativity vs. stagnation 8. Ego integrity vs. despair |
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Socialization
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The lifelong process through which an individual's behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motives are shaped to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society.
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Temperament
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Biologically based levels of emotional and behavioral response to the environment
-Jerome Kagan - some "inhibited" babies born shy, some "uninhibited" born bold -May switch with age |
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Attachment
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Intense, enduring, social - emotional relationshiop
-Konrad Lorenz - demonstrated imprinting with geese -John Bowlby - infants and adults are biologically predisposed to form attachments ->Internal working model - gathers together a child's history of interactions with his/her care-takers - provides template -Mary Ainsworth - strange situation test - child and toys w/ entering and leaving parent or stranger -> "Securely attached -Harry Harlow - infants attach to those who provide comfort (demonstrated with monkeys and wire mothers) -Stephen Suomi - putting emotionally vulnerable infant monkeys in the foster care of supportive mothers virtually turns around their lives, lack of close loving relationships in infancy affects physical growth and even survival |
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Sex differences
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Biologically based characteristics that distinguish males and females
-Gender - a psychological phenomenon referring to learned sex-related behaviors and attitudes |
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Eleanor Maccoby
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Young children are segregationists - they seek out peers of the same sex even when adults are not supervising them or in spite of adult co-ed encouragement
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Morality
Lawrence Kohlberg |
-A system of beliefs, values, and underlying judgements about the rightness or wrongness of human acts
-Studied moral reasoning (the judgements people make about what courses of action are correct or incorrect). Based off Piaget's view that as child progressed through stages of cognitive growth, it assigns differeing relative weights to the consequences of an act and to the actor's intentions - Expanded to define stages of moral development ->Controversial because not all people reach all levels or follow in particular order. Not universal |
