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200 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
apparent motion
An illusion that a stimulus or object is moving in space when, in fact, it is stationary. This illusion is created by rapidly showing a series of stationary images, each of which has a slightly different position or posture than the one before.
autism
A condition marked by especially abnormal or impaired development in social interactions, spoken language, and sensory-motor systems. Autistics characteristically have few activities or interests and spend long periods repeating the same ritualistic physical behaviors. Signs of autism begin in a child's first three years.
correlation
An association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events.
dependent variable
In an experiment, one or more of the subjects' behaviors that are used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable.
double-blind procedure
An experimental design in which neither the researchers nor the subjects know which group is receiving which treatment. This design makes it possible to separate the effects of medical treatment from the participants' beliefs or expectations about the treatment.
independent variable
In an experiment, a treatment or something else that the researcher controls or manipulates.
action potential
A tiny electric current that is generated when the positive sodium ions rush inside the axon. The enormous increase of sodium ions inside the axon causes the inside of the axon to reverse its charge: The inside becomes positive, while the outside becomes negative.
basal ganglia
A group of structures in the center of the brain that are involved in regulating movements. To function properly, neurons in the basal ganglia must have a sufficient supply of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
curare
A drug that enters the bloodstream, reaches the muscles, and blocks receptors on the muscles. As a result, acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that normally activates muscles, is blocked, and the muscles are paralyzed.
stereotaxic procedure
A method used for the introduction of material at a precise location within the brain. The patient's head is fixed in a holder, and a small hole is drilled through the skull. The holder has a syringe that can be precisely guided to a predetermined location in the brain.
adrenal glands
Structures in the endocrine system. The adrenal cortex (outer part) secretes hormones that regulate sugar and salt balances and help the body resist stress; they are also responsible for the growth of pubic hair, a secondary sexual characteristic. The adrenal medulla (inner part) secretes two hormones that arouse the body to deal with stress and emergencies: epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
amygdala
A structure in the limbic system that is located in the tip of the temporal lobe and is involved in forming, recognizing, and remembering emotional experiences and facial expressions.
anencephaly
The condition of being born with little or no brain. If some brain or nervous tissue is present, it is totally exposed and often damaged because the top of the skull is missing. Survival is usually limited to days; the longest has been 2 months.
anterior pituitary
The front part of the pituitary gland, a key component of the endocrine system. It regulates growth through the secretion of growth hormone and produces hormones that control the adrenal cortex, pancreas, thyroid, and gonads.
cerebellum
A region of the hindbrain that is involved in coordinating movements but not in initiating voluntary movements. It is also involved in cognitive functions, such as short-term memory, following rules, and carrying out plans. Surprising new evidence suggests that the cerebellum is also involved in learning to perform timed motor responses, such as those required in playing games or sports.
computerized axial tomography (CAT scan)
A technique used to study the structure of the living brain. Low levels of X-rays are passed through the brain. A computer measures the amount of radiation absorbed by the brain cells, which depends on their density, and produces a relatively good image of the brain.
cortex
A thin layer of cells that essentially covers the entire surface of the forebrain. The cortex consists of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, whose control centers allow us to carry out hundreds of cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions.
forebrain
The largest part of the brain, consisting of left and right hemispheres, which are connected by a wide band of fibers, the corpus callosum. The hemispheres are responsible for a vast array of responses, including learning and memory, speaking and language, emotional responses, experiencing sensations, initiating voluntary movements, planning, and making decisions.
frontal lobe
An area in the front part of the brain that includes a huge area of cortex. The frontal lobe is involved in many functions: performing voluntary motor movements, interpreting and performing emotional behaviors, behaving normally in social situations, maintaining a healthy personality, paying attention to things in the environment, making decisions, and carrying out plans.
gonads
Glands—the ovaries in females and the testes in males—that produce hormones to regulate sexual development, ovulation or sperm production, and the growth of sex organs. They are part of the endocrine system.
hindbrain
An area at the base of the brain that is involved in sleeping, waking, coordinating body movements, and regulating vital reflexes (heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration).
hippocampus
A curved structure within the temporal lobe that is involved in transforming many kinds of fleeting memories into permanent storage. It forms part of the limbic system.
hypothalamus
A structure of the limbic system that is located near the bottom middle of the brain and regulates many motivational and emotional behaviors. It controls much of the endocrine system by regulating the pituitary gland.
limbic system
A group of about half a dozen interconnected structures in the core of the forebrain that are involved in many motivational behaviors, such as obtaining food, drink, and sex; organizing emotional behaviors such as fear, anger, and aggression; and storing memories. It is sometimes referred to as our primitive, or animal, brain because the same structures are found in the brains of animals that are evolutionarily very old.
medulla
An area in the hindbrain, located at the top of the spinal cord, that includes a group of cells that control vital reflexes, such as respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure.
midbrain
The part of the brain that contains the reward/pleasure center, which is stimulated by food, sex, money, music, attractive faces, and some drugs (cocaine); contains areas for visual and auditory reflexes, such as automatically turning your head toward a noise; and holds the reticular formation, which arouses the forebrain so that it is ready to process information from the senses.
motor cortex
A narrow strip of cortex that is located on the back edge of the frontal lobe and extends down its side. It is involved in the initiation of all voluntary movements. The right motor cortex controls muscles on the left side of the body and vice versa.
pituitary gland
A key component of the endocrine system, which hangs directly below the hypothalamus, to which it is connected by a narrow stalk. Its anterior section regulates growth and controls much of the endocrine system, while its posterior section regulates water and salt balance.
pons
A bridge that connects the spinal cord with the brain and parts of the brain with one another. Cells in the pons manufacture chemicals involved in sleep.
posterior pituitary
The rear part of the pituitary gland, a key component of the endocrine system. It regulates water and salt balance.
sensory homunculus
A drawing of the somatosensory cortex that shows the relationship between the size of each body part and the degree of its sensitivity to external stimulation. Homunculus means "little man."
somatosensory cortex
A narrow strip of the cortex that is located at the front edge of the parietal lobe and extends down its side. It processes sensory information about touch, location of limbs, pain, and temperature. The right somatosensory cortex receives information from the left side of the body and vice versa.
temporal lobe
A segment of the brain located directly below the parietal lobe that is involved in hearing, speaking coherently, and understanding verbal and written material.
thalamus
A structure of the limbic system that is located in the middle of the forebrain and is involved in receiving sensory information, doing some initial processing, and then relaying the sensory information to appropriate areas of the cortex, including the somatosensory cortex, primary auditory cortex, and primary visual cortex.
Wernicke's Area
An area usually located in the left temporal lobe that plays a role in understanding speech and speaking in coherent sentences. See Wernicke's aphasia.
adaptation
The decreasing response of the sensory organs as they are exposed to a continuous level of stimulation.
basilar membrane
A membrane within the cochlea that contains the auditory receptors, or hair cells.
cochlea
A coiled, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that contains the receptors for hearing. Its function is transduction—transforming vibrations into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain for processing into auditory information.
conduction deafness
Deafness caused by wax in the auditory canal, injury to the tympanic membrane, or malfunction of the ossicles.
cones
Photoreceptors that contain three chemicals called opsins, which are activated in bright light and allow us to see color. Unlike rods, cones are wired individually to neighboring cells; this one-on-one system of relaying information allows us to see fine details.
cornea
The rounded, transparent covering over the front of the eye. As the light waves pass through the cornea, its curved surface bends, or focuses, the waves into a narrower beam.
dichromats
People who have trouble distinguishing red from green because their eyes have just two kinds of cones. This is an inherited condition, found mostly in males, that results in seeing mostly shades of green, but it differs in severity.
frequency theory
In pitch perception, the idea that, for low-frequency sound waves (1,000 cycles or less), the rate at which nerve impulses reach the brain determines how low a sound is. A rate of 50 impulses per second is interpreted as a lower sound than a rate of 200 impulses per second.
gate control theory
The idea that nonpainful nerve impulses compete with pain impulses as they enter the spinal cord, creating a neural gate through which only the nonpainful impulses pass; the pain impulses do not reach the brain. Thus, feelings of pain may be reduced by rubbing an injured area or becoming absorbed in other activities.
hair cells
The auditory receptors. These miniature hair-shaped cells rise from the basilar membrane in the cochlea.
iris
A circular muscle that surrounds the pupil and controls the amount of light that enters the eye. In dim light, the iris relaxes, allowing more light to enter—the pupil dilates; in bright light, the iris constricts, allowing less light to enter—the pupil constricts. The iris muscle contains the pigment that gives the eye its characteristic color.
lens
A transparent, oval structure in the eye whose curved surface functions to bend and focus light waves into an even narrower beam. The lens is attached to muscles that adjust the curve of the lens, which, in turn, adjusts the focusing.
Meniere's disease
Sudden attacks of dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and head-splitting buzzing sounds that result from a malfunction of the semicircular canals in the vestibular system.
monochromats
Individuals who have total color blindness; their world looks like a black-and-white movie. This kind of color blindness is rare and results from individuals having only rods or only one kind of functioning cone instead of three.
olfaction
The sense of smell. Its stimuli are various chemicals that are carried by the air.
olfactory cells
The receptors for smell, located in the uppermost part of the nasal passages. As volatile molecules dissolve in the mucus covering the cells, they stimulate the receptors, which send nerve impulses to the brain.
opponent-process theory
A theory of color vision suggesting that ganglion cells in the retina and cells in the thalamus respond to two pairs of colors: red-green and blue-yellow. When these cells are excited, they respond to one color of the pair; when inhibited, they respond to the complementary pair.
pitch
Our subjective experience of how low or high a sound is. The brain calculates pitch from the speed (frequency) of the sound waves. The frequency of sound waves is measured in cycles, which refers to how many sound waves occur in 1 second.
place theory
The theory that the brain perceives the pitch of a sound by receiving information about where on the basilar membrane a given sound vibrates the most; it applies to medium and higher pitches.
pupil
The round opening at the front of the eye that allows light waves to pass through into the eye's interior.
retina
A thin film, located at the very back of the eyeball, that contains cells, called photoreceptors, that are extremely sensitive to light. The retina consists of three layers, the third and deepest of which contains two kinds of photoreceptors, rods and cones, that perform transduction—that is, they change light waves into nerve impulses.
rods
Photoreceptors containing the chemical rhodopsin, which is activated by small amounts of light. Because rods are extremely light sensitive, they allow us to see in dim light but to see only black, white, and shades of gray.
somatosensory cortex
A narrow strip of the cortex that is located at the front edge of the parietal lobe and extends down its side. It processes sensory information about touch, location of limbs, pain, and temperature. The right somatosensory cortex receives information from the left side of the body and vice versa.
transduction
The process by which a sense organ changes, or transforms, physical energy into electrical signals that become neural impulses, which may be sent to the brain for processing.
trichromatic theory
The idea that there are three different kinds of cones in the retina, and each cone contains one of three different light-sensitive chemicals, called opsins. Each opsin is most responsive to wavelengths that correspond to each of the three primary colors-blue, green, and red-from which all other colors can be mixed.
vertigo
Feelings of dizziness and nausea resulting from malfunction of the semicircular canals in the vestibular system.
visual association area
An area of the brain, located next to the primary visual cortex, that transforms basic sensations, such as lights, lines, colors, and textures, into complete, meaningful visual perceptions, such as persons, objects, or animals.
absolute threshold
The intensity level of a stimulus such that a person has a 50% chance of detecting it.
Ames room
A viewing environment, designed by Albert Ames, that demonstrates how our perception of size may be distorted by manipulating our depth cues.
apparent motion
An illusion that a stimulus or object is moving in space when, in fact, it is stationary. This illusion is created by rapidly showing a series of stationary images, each of which has a slightly different position or posture than the one before.
atmospheric perspective
In three-dimensional vision, a monocular depth cue that comes into play in the presence of dust, smog, or water vapor. Hazy objects are interpreted as being farther away.
binocular depth cues
In three-dimensional vision, depth cues that depend upon the movement of both eyes (bi means "two"; ocular means "eye").
brightness constancy
Our tendency to perceive brightness as remaining the same in changing illumination.
clairvoyance
The ability to perceive events or objects that are out of sight.
closure rule
A perceptual rule stating that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to fill in any missing parts of a figure and see the figure as complete.
color constancy
Our tendency to perceive colors as remaining stable despite differences in lighting.
continuity rule
A perceptual rule stating that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to favor smooth or continuous paths when interpreting a series of points or lines.
convergence
In three-dimensional vision, a binocular cue for depth perception based on signals sent from the muscles that turn the eyes. To focus on near or approaching objects, these muscles turn the eyes inward, toward the nose. The brain uses the signals sent by these muscles to determine the distance of the object.
depth perception
In visual perception, the ability of the eye and brain to add a third dimension, depth, to visual perceptions, even though the images projected on our retina have only two dimensions, height and width.
extrasensory perception (ESP)
A group of psychic experiences that involve perceiving or sending information (images) outside normal sensory processes or channels. ESP includes four general abilities—telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis.
figure-ground rule
A perceptual rule stating that, in organizing stimuli, we tend to automatically distinguish between a figure and a ground: The figure, with more detail, stands out against the background, which has less detail.
Ganzfeld procedure
A controlled method for eliminating trickery, error, and bias while testing telepathic communication between two people.
Gestalt approach
An older theoretical approach that emphasized the idea that perception is more than the sum of its parts. In contrast to the structuralists, the Gestalt psychologists believed that perceptions are formed by the brain on the basis of a set of rules that specify how individual elements may be organized to form a meaningful pattern-that is, a perception.
impossible figure
A perceptual experience in which a drawing seems to defy basic geometric laws.
interposition
In three-dimensional vision, a monocular depth cue that comes into play when objects overlap. The overlapping object appears closer, and the object that is overlapped appears to be farther away.
just noticeable difference (JND)
The smallest increase or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus that a person can manage to detect.
light and shadow
A monocular depth cue; brightly lit objects appear closer, while objects in shadows appear farther away.
linear perspective
In three-dimensional vision, a monocular depth cue associated with the convergence of parallel lines in the far distance.
monocular depth cues
In three-dimensional vision, depth cues produced by signals from a single eye. They are most commonly determined by the way objects are arranged in the environment.
motion parallax
In three-dimensional vision, a monocular depth cue based on the speed of moving objects: Objects that appear to be moving at high speed are interpreted as closer to us than those moving more slowly.
perceptual constancy
Our tendency to perceive sizes, colors, brightness, and shapes as remaining the same even though their physical characteristics are constantly changing.
precognition
The ability to foretell events.
proximity rule
A perceptual rule stating that, in organizing stimuli, objects that are physically close to one another will be grouped together.
psi
The processing of information or transfer of energy by methods that have no known physical or biological mechanisms and that seem to stretch the laws of physics.
psychokinesis
The ability to exert mind over matter-for example, by moving objects without touching them.
real motion
Our perception of any stimulus or object that actually moves in space; the opposite of apparent motion.
relative size
In three-dimensional vision, a monocular depth cue that results when we expect two objects to be the same size and they are not. In that case, the larger of the objects will appear closer, and the smaller will appear to be farther away.
retinal disparity
A binocular depth cue that depends on the distance between the two eyes. Because of their different positions, the two eyes receive slightly different images. The difference between these images is the retinal disparity. The brain interprets large retinal disparity to mean a close object and small retinal disparity to mean a distant object.
rules of organization
Rules identified by Gestalt psychologists that specify how our brains combine and organize individual pieces or elements into a meaningful whole—that is, a perception.
shape constancy
Our tendency to see an object as remaining the same shape when viewed at different angles—that is, despite considerable change in the shape of its image on the retina.
similarity rule
A perceptual rule stating that, in organizing stimuli, elements that appear similar are grouped together.
simplicity rule
A perceptual rule stating that stimuli are organized in the simplest way possible.
stimulus
In operant conditioning, a temporary recovery in the rate of responding.
structuralism
An early school of psychological thought that emphasized the study of the basic elements-primarily sensations and perceptions-that make up conscious mental experiences. Structuralists argued that we can understand how perceptions are formed by breaking them down into smaller and smaller elements. Then we can analyze how these basic elements are recombined to form a perception. They believed that a perception is simply the sum of its parts.
telepathy
The ability to transfer thoughts to another person or to read the thoughts of others.
texture gradient
In three-dimensional vision, a monocular depth cue: Areas with sharp, detailed texture are interpreted as being closer, and those with less sharpness and detail as more distant.
threshold
A point above which a stimulus is perceived and below which it is not perceived. See also absolute threshold.
Weber's law
A psychophysics law stating that the increase in intensity of a stimulus needed to produce a just noticeable difference grows in proportion to the intensity of the initial stimulus.
activation-synthesis theory of dreams
The idea that dreaming represents the random and meaningless activity of nerve cells in the brain. According to this theory, the pons, an area in the brain, sends millions of random nerve impulses to the cortex; in turn, the cortex tries to make sense of these signals by creating the feelings, imagined movements, perceptions, changing scenes, and meaningless images that we define as dreams.
adaptive theory
A theory suggesting that sleep evolved as a survival mechanism, since it prevented early humans and animals from wasting energy and exposing themselves to the dangers of nocturnal predators.
alpha stage
In sleep, a stage marked by feelings of being relaxed and drowsy, usually with the eyes closed. Alpha waves have low amplitude and high frequency (8–12 cycles per second).
altered state of consciousness
An awareness that differs from normal consciousness; such awareness may be produced by using any number of procedures, such as meditation, psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, or sleep deprivation.
benzodiazepines
Minor tranquilizers (Librium, Valium, Xanax, Dalmane, Halcion) that reduce anxiety and stress. They are frequently prescribed for the short-term (3–4 weeks) treatment of insomnia. Side effects associated with high doses or prolonged usage include daytime drowsiness, loss of memory, tolerance, and dependency.
circadian rhythm
A biological clock that is genetically programmed to regulate physiological responses within a time period of 24 or 25 hours (about a day); one example is the sleep-wake cycle.
cognitive unconscious
Mental structures and processes that, although we are unaware of them, automatically and effortlessly influence our conscious thoughts and behaviors.
consciousness
An individual's different levels of awareness of his or her thoughts and feelings. Creating images in the mind, following thought processes, and having unique emotional experiences are all part of consciousness.
continuum of consciousness
The wide range of human experiences, from being acutely aware and alert to being totally unaware and unresponsive.
controlled processes
Activities that require full awareness, alertness, and concentration to reach some goal. Because of the strongly focused attention they require, controlled processes often interfere with other ongoing activities.
Freud's theory of dreams
A theory that says we have a "censor" that protects us from realizing threatening and unconscious desires or wishes, especially those involving sex or aggression, by transforming them into harmless symbols that appear in our dreams and do not disturb our sleep or conscious thoughts.
interval timing clock
A sort of timing device, located in the basal ganglia of the brain, that gauges the passage of seconds, minutes, or hours and helps creatures know when to start or stop doing some activity.
melatonin
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland, an oval group of cells in the center of the human brain. Melatonin secretion, controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus, increases with darkness and decreases with light; thus, it plays a role in the regulation of circadian rhythms and in promoting sleep.
non-REM sleep
Stages 1–4 of sleep, in which rapid eye movement does not occur; it makes up about 80% of sleep time.
nonbenzodiazepines
Drugs, such as Ambien and Sonata, that are becoming popular sleeping pills because they are rapid acting, are of short duration, and have few cognitive side effects.
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
The stage of sleep in which our eyes move rapidly back and forth behind closed eyelids. This stage makes up 20% of our sleep time; in a normal night, we experience five or six periods of REM sleep, each one lasting 15–45 minutes. REM brain waves, which have a high frequency and a low amplitude, look very similar to the beta waves that are recorded when we are wide awake and alert; the body's voluntary muscles, however, are paralyzed. Dreams usually occur during REM sleep.
REM behavior disorder .
A disorder, usually found in older people, in which the voluntary muscles are not paralyzed during REM sleep; sleepers can and do act out their dreams
repair theory
A theory of sleep suggesting that activities during the day deplete key factors in the brain or body that are replenished or repaired by sleep.
reticular formation
A column of brain cells that arouses and alerts the forebrain and prepares it to receive information from all the senses. It plays an important role in keeping the forebrain alert and producing a state of wakefulness. Animals or humans whose reticular formationis seriously damaged lapse into permanent unconsciousness or coma.
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
A pattern of depressive symptoms that cycle with the seasons, typically beginning in fall or winter. The depression is accompanied by feelings of lethargy, excessive sleepiness, overeating, weight gain, and craving for carbohydrates.
suprachiasmatic nucleus .
A sophisticated biological clock, located in the hypothalamus, that regulates a number of circadian rhythms, including the sleep-wake cycle. Suprachiasmatic cells are highly responsive to changes in light
ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VPN)
A group of cells in the hypothalamus that acts like a master switch for sleep. Turned on, the VPN secretes a neurotransmitter (GABA) that turns off areas that keep the brain awake; turned off, the VPN causes certain brain areas to become active and we wake up.
age regression
In hypnosis, the suggestion that subjects regress, or return, to an earlier time in their lives—for example, to early childhood.
cognitive-behavior therapy
A treatment for phobias and other mental disorders based on a combination of two methods: changing negative, unhealthy, or distorted thoughts and beliefs by substituting positive, healthy, and realistic ones; and changing limiting or disruptive behaviors by learning and practicing new skills to improve functioning. Sometimes called behavior therapy.
dependency
A change in the nervous system such that a person addicted to a drug now needs to take it to prevent the occurrence of painful symptoms.
hypnotic analgesia
Reduction in pain reported by clients after undergoing hypnosis and receiving suggestions that reduced anxiety and promoted relaxation.
imagined perception
In hypnosis, the subject's willingness, at the hypnotist's suggestion, to respond to nonexistent stimuli and imaginary perceptions. It can also include bizarre behaviors, such as imitating Elvis Presley in public.
posthypnotic amnesia
Inability to remember what happened during hypnosis, prompted by a specific suggestion from the hypnotist.
posthypnotic suggestion
A suggestion given to the subject during hypnosis about performing a particular behavior, in response to a predetermined cue, when the subject comes out of hypnosis.
reuptake
The process by which some neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, are removed from the synapse by being transported back into the end bulbs.
reward/pleasure center
The part of the brain that includes the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area and involves several neurotransmitters, especially dopamine. Combined with other brain areas, it forms a neural circuit that produces rewarding and pleasurable feelings.
sociocognitive theory of hypnosis
The idea that the impressive effects of hypnosis are due to social influences and pressures as well as the subject's personal abilities. For another view, see altered state theory of hypnosis.
adaptive value
The usefulness of certain abilities or traits that have evolved in animals or humans that tend to increase their chances of survival, such as the ability to find food, acquire mates, and avoid illness and injury.
anticipatory nausea
Feelings of nausea that are elicited by stimuli associated with nausea-inducing chemotherapy treatments. Patients experience nausea after treatment but also in anticipation of their treatment. Researchers believe that anticipatory nausea occurs through classical conditioning.
classical conditioning
A kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus.
cognitive learning
A kind of learning that involves mental processes, such as attention and memory; may proceed through observation or imitation; and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors.
conditioned emotional response
The feeling of some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that previously accompanied a pleasant or painful event. This is an example of classical conditioning.
conditioned response (CR)
A response elicited by the conditioned stimulus; it is similar to the unconditioned response but not identical in magnitude or amount.
conditioned stimulus (CS)
A formerly neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to elicita response previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
contiguity theory
The view that classical conditioning occurs because two stimuli (the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus) are paired close together in time (are contiguous). Eventually, as a result of this contiguous pairing, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which elicits the conditioned response.
law of effect
The principle that behaviors followed by positive (pleasurable) consequences are strengthened (and thus will likely occur in the future), while behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened.
neutral stimulus
A stimulus that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but does not produce the reflex being tested.
operant conditioning
A kind of learning in which the consequences—reward or punishment—that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior's occurrence in the future. Also called instrumental conditioning.
preparedness
The innate or biological tendency of animals and humans to recognize, attend to, and store certain cues over others, as well as to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others. Also called prepared learning.
systematic desensitization
A technique of behavior therapy, based on classical conditioning, in which a person is gradually and progressively exposed to fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli while practicing deep relaxation. Systematic desensitization is a form of counterconditioning because it replaces, or counters, fear and anxiety with relaxation.
unconditioned response (UCR)
An unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that triggers or elicits some physiological response, such as salivation or eye blink.
behavior modification
A treatment or therapy that changes or modifies problems or undesirable behaviors by using learning principles based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social cognitive learning.
cognitive learning
A kind of learning that involves mental processes, such as attention and memory; may proceed through observation or imitation; and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors.
continuous reinforcement
The simplest reinforcement schedule, in which every occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer.
ethologists
Behavioral biologists who observe and study animal behavior in the animal's natural environment or under relatively naturalistic conditions.
fixed ratio schedule
In conditioning, a schedule in which a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses by the subject.
fixed-interval schedule
In conditioning, a schedule in which a reinforcer occurs following a subject's first response after a fixed interval of time.
imprinting
Inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment.
learning-performance distinction
The idea that learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or immediately evident in, performance.
negative punishment
Removal of a reinforcing stimulus (for example, taking away a child's allowance) after a response. This removal decreases the chances that the response will recur.
negative reinforcement
The occurrence of an operant response that either stops or removes an aversive stimulus. Removal of the aversive stimulus increases the likelihood that the response will occur again.
operant response
A response that can be modified by its consequences. Operant responses offer a way of dividing ongoing behavior into meaningful and measurable units.
partial reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which the response is reinforced only some of the time.
pica
A behavioral disorder in which individuals eat inedible objects or nonnutritive substances. Pica can lead to serious physical problems, including lead poisoning, intestinal blockage, and parasites, and is more often seen in individuals with mental retardation.
positive punishment
The presentation of an aversive stimulus (for example, spanking) after a response. The aversive stimulus decreases the chances that the response will recur.
positive reinforcement
The presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability of a behavior's recurrence.
positive reinforcer
A stimulus that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again.
primary reinforcer
A stimulus, such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable.
punishment
A consequence that occurs after behavior and decreases the likelihood that that behavior will recur.
reinforcement
A consequence that occurs after behavior and increases the likelihood that that behavior will recur.
schedule of reinforcement
In conditioning, a program or rule that determines how and when a response will be followed by a reinforcer.
secondary reinforcer
Any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned, for example, by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers.
shaping
In operant conditioning, a procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate the desired behavior.
social cognitive theory
The theory that grew out of the research of a number of psychologists—Rotter, Bandura, and Mischel-that says that personality development is primarily shaped by three forces: environmental conditions, cognitive-personal factors, and behavior, "which all interact to influence how we evaluate, interpret, organize, and apply information.
superstitious behavior
In operant conditioning, any behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of a reinforcer.
variable-interval schedule
A conditioning schedule such that the time between the response and the subsequent reinforcer is variable.
variable-ratio schedule
A conditioning schedule in which the subject must make a different number of responses for the delivery of each reinforcer.
automatic encoding
The transfer of information from short-term into long-term memory without any effort and usually without any awareness.
declarative memory
Memories of facts or events, such as scenes, stories, words, conversations, faces, or daily events. We are aware of these kinds of memories and can retrieve them.
echoic memory
A form of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1 or 2 seconds.
effortful encoding
The transfer of information from short-term into long-term memory either by working hard to repeat or rehearse the information or by making associations between new and old information.
eidetic imagery
The ability to examine a picture or page for 10–30 seconds and then retain a detailed visual image of the material for several minutes. Eidetic memory is found in a small percentage of children and almost always disappears around adolescence.
elaborative rehearsal
Making meaningful associations between information to be learned and information already learned. An effective strategy for encoding information into long-term memory.
encoding
Placing or storing information—such as images, events, or sounds (music, noise, speech)—in memory by making mental representations.
episodic memory
A type of declarative memory, consisting of knowledge about one's personal experiences (episodes) or activities, such as naming or describing favorite restaurants, movies, songs, habits, or hobbies.
flash bulb memories
Vivid recollections, usually in great detail, of dramatic or emotionally charged incidents, which are encoded effortlessly and may last for long periods of time.
forgetting curve
A graph measuring the amount of previously learned information that subjects can recall or recognize across time.
iconic memory
A form of sensory memory that holds visual information for about a quarter of a second or more. (The word icon means "image.")
interference
The forgetting process in which the recall of some particular memory is blocked or prevented by new information that overwrites or interferes with it. See also proactive interference and retroactive interference.
levels-of-processing theory
The theory that memory depends on how well information is encoded in the mind. Information is encoded at a shallow level if we simply pay attention to its basic features but is encoded at a deep level if we form new associations with existing information. According to the theory, poor memory corresponds to information encoded at a shallow level, and good memory to information encoded at deep levels.
long-term memory
The process that can store almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time.
maintenance rehearsal
The practice of intentionally repeating or rehearsing information (rather than forming any new associations) so that it remains longer in short-term memory.
memory
The ability to retain information over time through the processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving. Memories are not copies but representations of the world that vary in accuracy and are subject to error and bias.
photographic memory
The ability to form sharp, detailed visual images after examining a picture or page for a short period of time and to recall the entire image at a later date. Photographic memory is similar to eidetic imagery but occurs in adults.
procedural memory
Memories of performing motor or perceptual tasks (playing sports), carrying out habitual behaviors (brushing teeth), and responding to stimuli because of classical conditioning (fearing spiders). We cannot retrieve these memories and are not conscious of them.
repression
According to Freud, a mental process that automatically hides emotionally threatening or anxiety-producing information in the unconscious. Repressed information cannot be retrieved voluntarily, but something may cause it to be released and to reenter the person's consciousness at a later time.
retrieving
The process of getting or recalling information that has been placed into short-term or long-term storage.
semantic memory
A type of declarative memory consisting of factual knowledge about the world, concepts, word definitions, and language rules.
sensory memory
An initial memory process that receives and holds environmental information in its raw form for a brief period of time, from an instant to several seconds.
short-term memory
A process that can hold a limited amount of information—an average of seven items—for a short time (2–30 seconds), which can be lengthened if you rehearse the information. Sometimes called working memory.
storing
The process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall.