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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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SENSORY PROCESSES - SENSATION
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refers to the immediate response in the brain caused by excitation of a sensory organ. Therefore, “seeing”, “hearing”, and the other senses take place in the brain, not in the eye or ear or other sense organs.
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SENSORY PROCESSES - PERCEPTION
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occurs as the brain mentally process and organizes sensations into meaningful patterns.
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SENSORY PROCESSES - PSYCHOPHYSICS
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is the study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations they evoke.
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SENSORY PROCESSES - the ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD
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Psychophysics studies this, or the minimum amount of physical energy necessary to produce a sensation. The absolute threshold answers the question, what is the minimum amount of energy necessary for a sensation to occur?
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SENSORY PROCESSES - the DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD
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Psychophysics also studies this, which is the amount of change in a physical stimulus necessary to produce a Just Noticeable Difference (JND = any noticeable difference) to an observer. The difference threshold answers the question, how much must a stimulus change (increase or decrease) before it becomes just noticeably different?
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VISION- COMMON VISUAL PROBLEMS - How does seeing work?
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Most focusing is done at the front of the eye by the CORNEA (where light enters). The LENS makes smaller adjustments to the light by bending, stretching, or thickening in a process called ACCOMMODATION.
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VISION- COMMON VISUAL PROBLEMS – MYOPIA
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(nearsightedness) occurs because the eye is too long and cannot focus on distant objects.
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VISION- COMMON VISUAL PROBLEMS – HYPEROPIA
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(farsightedness) occurs because the eye is too short and cannot focus on close objects.
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VISION- COMMON VISUAL PROBLEMS -
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HEARING - How does Hearing work
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Hearing involves an elaborate chain of events beginning with vibrations that cause the rhythmic movement of air molecules that travel through the THE PINNA which then make waves in the fluid inside of the COCHLEA within the inner ear to trigger nerve impulses to the brain.
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HEARING - What is the PINNA?
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the external part of the ear,
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HEARING - What is the COCHLEA?
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the real organ for hearing
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HEARING/TYPES OF HEARING LOSS -
CONDUCTIVE HEARING LOSS |
occurs when there is a poor transfer of sounds from the eardrum to the inner ear due to damage or immobilization from disease or injury and may be overcome with a hearing aid.
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HEARING/TYPES OF HEARING LOSS - SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS
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occurs when auditory messages are blocked from reaching the brain due to damage to the hair cells or auditory nerve. This may be overcome with an artificial hearing system, such as cochlear implants.
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HEARING/TYPES OF HEARING LOSS - NOISE-INDUCED HEARING LOSS
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is a type of sensorineural hearing loss that occurs when a very loud sounds damage hair cells in the cochlea. This can be caused by certain jobs, hobbies, and pastimes. It is recommended that ear protection be used when exposed daily to sounds above 85 decibels.
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OLFACTION AND GUSTATION - How do we SMELL?
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As molecules in the air enter the nose, they passes over about 5 million nerve fiber receptors embedded in the lining of the upper nasal passage, which triggers signals of smell through the olfactory bulb, which runs under the frontal lobes, to the olfactory cortex in the temporal lobes.
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OLFACTION AND GUSTATION - How do we TASTE?
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As food is chewed, it releases chemicals and dissolves into the TASTE BUDS (receptors for taste), setting off nerve impulses to areas of the parietal lobes where “taste” occurs. There are at least four basic taste sensations: bitter, sour, salty, and sweet, and we are sensitive to them in that order.
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THE SOMESTHETIC SENSES - SKIN SENSES
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sense of touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold.
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THE SOMESTHETIC SENSES - KINESTHETIC SENSES
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sense of body movement and positioning.
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THE SOMESTHETIC SENSES - VESTIBULAR SENSES
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sense of balance, position in space, and acceleration.
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PERCEPTION- PERCEPTUAL CONSTRUCTIONS
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Are mental models of external events that are actively created by your brain.
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PERCEPTION- PERCEPTUAL MISCONSTRUCTION
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is responsible for many ILLUSIONS in which length, position, motion, curvature, or direction is consistently misjudged.
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PERCEPTION- Figure 2
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examples of perceptual constructions and misconstruction
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What do the GESTALT PRINCIPLES help shape?
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our perceptions. Look around your room while you study this section, and notice how you’ve use the same principles to group things around you.
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES - How are sensations organized into perceptions?
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One way is by the PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES - PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESIS
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is our initial guess about how to organize (perceive) a stimulus pattern, based on pre-existing ideas and expectations (i.e. “jumping-the-gun”).
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES - NEARNESS (PROXIMITY)
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explains that stimuli near each other tend to be grouped together.
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES – SIMILARITY
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explains that stimuli that are similar in size, shape, color, or form tend to be grouped together.
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES – CONTINUITY
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shows that we prefer perceptions that are simplistic and continued.
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES – CLOSURE
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shows the tendency to “complete” a figure so it has a consistent overall form.
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES Fig 3–
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Examples of Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES - COMMON REGION
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explains that stimuli found within a common region, or area, tend to be seen as a group.
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES – Fig 4
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Example of Common Region Each of the three regions has a different number of shapes
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GESTALT ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES – CONTIGUITY
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shows the perception that one thing has “caused” another, such as breaking a fresh stalk of celery to give the auditory perception (e.g. sound effect) of bones breaking.
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES – Are important in what purpose?
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Perceptual constancies are important for maintaining a stable perceptual world. To truly appreciate their importance, imagine one of these failing you on any given day.
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES – SIZE CONSTANCY
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refers to how the perceived size of an object remains the same, even though the size of its image on the retina changes.
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PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES – SHAPE CONSTANCY
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refers to how the perceived shape of an object remains the same, even though the shape of its image on the retina changes.
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PERCEPTUAL LEARNING AND EXPECTANCIES - PERCEPTUAL HABITS
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are well-established patterns of perceptual organization and attention, which are created by learning and affect our daily experiences
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PERCEPTUAL LEARNING AND EXPECTANCIES - PERCEPTUAL HABITS Read the following short phrase aloud Fig.7
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Did you read “Paris in the spring”? If so, read again! The word “the” appeared twice. Because of past experience with the English language, good readers often overlook the repeated word.
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PERCEPTUAL LEARNING AND EXPECTANCIES - Fig 8
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PERCEPTUAL EXPECTANCY To what extent do we see what we want to see? another example of the brain's perceptual abilities
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PERCEPTUAL LEARNING AND EXECTANCIES - PERCEPTUAL EXPECTANCY
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prepares you to perceive something in a particular manner and is strongly influenced by expectations. This can lead us to “see what we want to see” rather than see what’s actually there in front of us!
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EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) – PARAPSYCHOLOGY
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is the study of paranormal (beyond-normal) events, such as extrasensory perception, that seem to defy the accepted scientific laws.
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EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) – Types of ESP CLAIRVOYANCE
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is the perception of events or gaining information in ways that appear unaffected by distance or normal physical barriers (i.e. psychic intuition).
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EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) – Types of ESP TELEPATHY
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is the perception of another person’s thoughts as they are occurring, (i.e. reading someone’s mind).
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EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) – Types of ESP PRECOGNITION
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is the perception or accurate prediction of future events, which may or may not occur in dreams.
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EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) – Types of ESP PSYCHOKINESIS
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is the ability to exert influence over inanimate objects by willpower, such as moving an object with one’s mind (i.e. mind over matter).
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EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP) – Do paranormal events actually occur?
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After about 130 years of investigation it is impossible to say conclusively whether paranormal events actually occur. Despite the studies that have been conducted and found support for some claims, results have not been replicated by more than “chance.”
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STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - CONSCIOUSNESS
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consists of all the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instant.
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STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - WAKING CONSCIOUSNESS
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Is where we spend most of our time in a state of clear, meaningful, and organized alertness.
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STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - The UNCONSCIOUS
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is the region of the mind that is beyond awareness.
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STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
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during this state, changes occur in the quality and pattern of mental activity. Typically, there are distinct shifts in our perceptions, emotions, memories, time sense, thoughts, feelings of self-control, and suggestibility.
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STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Experiences that may cause ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS are
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sleep and dreaming, sensory overload, monotonous stimulation, hypnosis, daydreaming or “gazing off,” meditation, or unusual physical conditions (e.g. high fever, hypothermia).
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SLEEP - Can Sleep be ignored?
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Sleep is an innate BIOLOGICAL RHYTHM that can never be entirely ignored.
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SLEEP - What creates our 24-hour sleep/wake cycle?
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On average, we sleep about 7-8 hours per night. Certain brain circuits and chemicals promote sleep while others inhibit sleep. Their processes “seesaw” back and forth, creating our 24-hour sleep/wake cycle
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SLEEP - symptoms of SLEEP DEPRIVATION
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trembling hands, inattention, irritability, and increased pain sensitivity?
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SLEEP - cause of SLEEP DEPRIVATION
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Being awake for UP TO 4 days may lead to symptoms
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SLEEP - symptoms of SLEEP DEPRIVATION PSYCHOSIS
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confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations
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SLEEP - cause of SLEEP DEPRIVATION PSYCHOSIS
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Being awake for MORE than 4 days may lead to symptoms
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SLEEP - WORLD RECORD
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The scientifically documented world record for staying awake is held by Randy Gardner who, in 1964 at the age of 17, went 264 hours (11 days) without sleep, then needed only about 14 hour of sleep to recover
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STAGES OF SLEEP -
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FIG 5.1
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 1 normal, reflex reaction is called
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HYPNIC JERK occurs as you enter light sleep, heart rate slows, breathing becomes irregular, and muscles relax.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 1 What level of sleep occurs in this stage?
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REM sleep occurs during stage 1 sleep. If a person is awakened here, they may say that they were not asleep yet.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 1 REM sleep is associated
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with rapid eye movements, REM paralysis, and dreaming.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 2 What are SLEEP SPINDLES?
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short bursts of distinctive brain activity that may aid the consolidation of memories, and spontaneous K-COMPLEXES, which are the largest events in a healthy human brain that may engage information processing. EEG recordings show that this occurs as sleep deepens.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 2 What level of sleep occurs in this stage?
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NREM SLEEP. Typically, people begin the sleep cycle with NREM sleep followed by a very short period of REM sleep, then continue with more NREM sleep and more REM sleep, this 90 minute cycle continuing through the night. A person awakened in stage 2 may say they were just falling asleep.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 3 What do DELTA WAVES signal?
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large, slow waves begin to appear on the EEG, which signal deeper sleep and further loss of consciousness.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 3 What level of sleep occurs in this stage?
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NREM SLEEP - deeper sleep. A person awakened here will be very groggy and somewhat disoriented.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - STAGE 4 What level of sleep occurs in this stage?
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NREM SLEEP - The deepest level of normal sleep, it is what we call DEEP SLEEP. Brain waves are almost pure delta, and the sleeper is in OBLIVION. A person awakened here will be completely disoriented. If a person does not get enough stage 4 sleep, they will not feel rested even after an 8 hour night of sleep. Stage 4 is associated with sleep walking, sleep talking, sleep eating, and night terrors, disturbances that are usually not remembered in the morning.
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STAGES OF SLEEP - At what stage do sleep disturbances occur?
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Stage 4 is associated with sleep walking, sleep talking, sleep eating, and night terrors - disturbances that are usually not remembered in the morning.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – HYPERSOMNIA
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refers to excessive daytime sleepiness, which can be caused by depression, insomnia, sleep apnea, drug abuse, and other problems.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – INSOMNIA
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refers to difficulty in getting to sleep or staying asleep, and/or not feeling rested after sleeping.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – SLEEP APNEA
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is a disorder where, during sleep, breathing stops for 20 seconds or more. The sleeper wakes momentarily to gulp some air, then goes back to sleep. These people stay in “light” sleep because they wake up so often.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – NARCOLEPSY
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refers to sudden daytime sleep attacks that last from a few minutes to half an hour. These people usually enter REM sleep rather quickly. This can occur while the person is sitting, standing, or driving a car.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – REM BEHAVIOR DISORDER
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is failure to achieve normal muscle paralysis, which leads to violent actions during REM sleep while a person is dreaming.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – NIGHTMARE DISORDER
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refers to vivid, recurrent nightmares that significantly disturb sleep.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – When does NIGHTMARE DISORDER occur?
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Occurs during stage 1. The person is usually coherent, but fearful and/or anxious when awake. The nightmare content is usually remembered.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – SLEEP TERROR DISORDER
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is diagnosed when a person experiences repeated occurrences of night terrors that significantly disturb sleep.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – When does SLEEP TERROR DISORDER occur?
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Occurs during stage 4. The person is usually incoherent, disorganized, and panic-stricken when awakened. They have no recall of night terror experience.
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SLEEP DISORDERS AND DISTURBANCES – What disturbances occur in non-REM sleep when the sleeper is in a deeper sleep?
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SLEEPWALKING, SLEEPTALKING, SLEEPEATING, and SLEEPSEX.
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DREAMS - PSYCHODYNAMIC DREAM THEORY
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(Freud) posits that dreams are based on WISH-FULFILLMENT, which is an expression of unconscious desires and conflicts disguised as DREAM SYMBOLS. Some dreams are trivial and represent “day residues” or carryovers from ordinary waking events.
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DREAMS – What are DREAM SYMBOLS
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images that occur in PSYCHODYNAMIC DREAM THEORY that have deeper symbolic meaning
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DREAMS – ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS HYPOTHESIS
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(Hobson & McCarley) states that several parts of the brain are “turned on” (activated) during REM sleep, which triggers sensations, motor commands, and memories. The cortex then attempts to synthesize this activity into stories and visual images, which we interpret as a “dream.”
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DREAMS – Fig 5.2
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insert
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DREAMS – NEUROCOGNITIVE DREAM THEORY
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(Domhoff) suggests that dreams reflect everyday waking thoughts and emotions because the same brain areas that are active when we are awake are also active when we are dreaming. Dreams are a conscious expression of REM sleep processes that are sorting and storing daily experiences. This theory is a combination of Freud’s “day residues” and Hobson and McCarley’s A-S hypothesis.
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HYPNOSIS - What is HYPNOSIS?
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an altered state of consciousness characterized by narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestion.
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HYPNOSIS - What is the key element to hypnosis?
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the BASIC SUGGESTION EFFECT, which is the tendency of hypnotized subjects to carry out suggested actions as if they were involuntary.
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HYPNOSIS - Can you do something you wouldn’t normally do under hypnosis? What is required?
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research indicates that a hypnotized person cannot be coerced into doing something that they wouldn’t do when NOT under hypnosis. They must cooperate to become hypnotized.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible - find superhuman strength
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People CANNOT find superhuman strength within themselves under hypnotic suggestion.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible – form false memories
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Hypnosis CAN elicit the formation of false memories.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible – brief memory loss
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Hypnosis CAN lead to brief memory loss.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible – reduce pain
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Hypnosis CAN reduce pain, especially phantom limb pain.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible – acting out a role
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Age-regressed subjects are VERY LIKELY just acting out a suggested role.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible – change an experience
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Hypnotic suggestion CAN change a person’s sensory experiences.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible – subject following along
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Subjects of stage hypnosis are LIKELY TO CONFORM to the group than actually become hypnotized.
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HYPNOSIS – Myth or Possible – help in therapy
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Hypnosis CAN help people to relax and make better progress in therapy.
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MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION - MEDITATION is
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a mental exercise used to alter consciousness to produce relaxation or heightened awareness.
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MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION - CONCENTRATIVE MEDITATION
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focuses attention on one object or focal point, such as your breathing.
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MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION - MINDFULNESS MEDITATION
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is open and expansive and widens attention to embrace an awareness of the world.
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MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION - SENSORY DEPRIVATION
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refers to any major reduction in the amount or variety of sensory stimulation, which can be achieved in a floatation tank or floatation spa.
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MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION – Fig 5.3
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SENSORY DEPRIVATION
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MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION - RESTRICTED ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULATION THERAPY (REST)
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enhances performance, relieves chronic pain, and reduces stress by temporarily increasing mental and behavioral flexibility. In general, it interrupts a person’s routine and behavior patterns to make it easier to change bad habits.
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MEDITATION AND SENSORY DEPRIVATION - One of the most consistent after-effects of REST is
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increased sensory acuity (e.g. things become “sharper” and “clearer”).
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DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS - PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
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are capable of altering any aspect of one’s attention, memory, judgment, time sense, self-control, mood, or perception. They operate by imitating or altering chemical activity in the brain.
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DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS – STIMULANTS
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(uppers) are substances that increase activity in the body and nervous system (i.e. amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine, and MDMA).
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DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS – DEPRESSANTS
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(downers) are substances that decrease activity in the body and nervous system (i.e. alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and GHB).
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DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS - PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE
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refers to addiction to a drug to maintain bodily comfort.
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DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS – What two conditions accompany PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE
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WITHDRAWAL (physical illness upon removal of the drug) and TOLERANCE (reduced response to the drug).
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DRUG-ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS - PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE
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refers to addiction to a drug that is based primarily on emotional or psychological needs such as to maintain feelings of comfort and well-being.
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HUMANS IN THE SOCIAL CONTEXT - SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
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is the scientific study of how individuals behave, think, and feel in social situations (that is, in the presence- actual or implied- of others).
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HUMANS IN THE SOCIAL CONTEXT - SOCIAL ROLES
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are patterns of behavior expected of persons in various social positions.
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HUMANS IN THE SOCIAL CONTEXT - ASCRIBED ROLES
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are assigned patterns of behavior and not under personal control
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HUMANS IN THE SOCIAL CONTEXT - ACHIEVED ROLES
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are voluntary patterns of behavior and are attained by special effort.
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HUMANS IN THE SOCIAL CONTEXT - ROLE CONFLICTS
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in which two or more roles make conflicting demands.
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SOCIAL COGNITION
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refers to the process of thinking about ourselves and others in the social context.
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SOCIAL COGNITION - SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY
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states that, when there are no objective standards, we tend to compare our own actions, feelings, opinions, or abilities to those of others. For example, if no scale is available to weigh yourself, you might evaluate your weight relative to people around you. Meaningful evaluations are based on comparing yourself with people of similar backgrounds, abilities, and circumstances.
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SOCIAL COGNITION - DOWNWARD COMPARISONS
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are those in which you compare yourself to someone who ranks lower than you on some dimension. For example, your boss cuts your hours at work but it comforts you to think of the friend who just lost his or her job.
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SOCIAL COGNITION - UPWARD COMPARISONS
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are those in which you compare yourself to someone who ranks higher than you on some dimension. For example, you can improve your dancing skills by comparing yourself to another student in the class who is a little better dancer than you.
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE
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refers to changes in a person’s behavior induced by the presence or actions of others. When people interact, they almost always affect one another’s behavior. However, the people we encounter on any given day vary in their power to influence us.
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE - SOCIAL POWER
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refers to one’s capacity to control, alter, or influence the behaviors of others.
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE - REWARD POWER
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is based on the capacity to reward a person for acting as desired. (e.g. parenting)
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE - COERCIVE POWER
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is based on the ability to punish unacceptable behavior. (e.g. a police officer)
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE - LEGITIMATE POWER
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is based on a person’s position as an agent of an accepted societal order. (e.g. an elected official)
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE - REFERENT POWER
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is gained when one is used as a point of reference by others. (e.g. one who volunteers)
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SOCIAL INFLUENCE - EXPERT POWER
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is derived from possession of knowledge or expertise. (e.g. Steve Jobs)
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CONFORMITY
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refers to bringing one’s behavior into agreement or harmony with norms or with the behavior of others in a group, and it greatly influences our daily behaviors.
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A famous social psychological experiment on conformity was conducted in the 1950s by
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SOLOMON ASCH.
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Imagine you are seated at a table with six other students and are shown a card with a standard line on it and another card with three lines on it. The question asked is, which of the three lines matches the standard line?Insert fig 16.1
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For several trials, your response matches the other six students. Then suddenly, the other six give a response different from yours! This created some nervousness and anxiety, especially since they are all staring at you. What happens next? Do you yield to the group? In the study, the “other six students” were all accomplices of Asch and were to create group pressure to see if the “subject” would alter his answer. 75% of “subjects” yielded to the group pressure at least once! What do you think YOU would have done? What if you had just one ally who agreed with you? Do you think that would decrease the chance of you yielding to the group? (It would, significantly.)
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COMPLIANCE
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refers to bending to the requests of a person who has little or no authority or other form of social power.
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COMPLIANCE – When are we more likely to comply with a request
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if it (a) comes from someone we know rather than a stranger, (b) is consistent with our previous actions, and (c) allows us to reciprocate a prior gift, favor, or service.
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COMPLIANCE - FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR EFFECT
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the tendency for a person who has first complied with a small request to be more likely later to fulfill a larger one.
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COMPLIANCE – DOOR-IN-THE-FACE EFFECT
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the tendency for a person who has refused a major request to subsequently be more likely to comply with a minor request.
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COMPLIANCE – THE LOWBALL TECHNIQUE
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a strategy in which commitment is gained first to reasonable and desirable terms, which are then made less reasonable and desirable.
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OBEDIENCE – Basis for a series of provocative studies conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960’s
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The question is this: If ordered to do so, would you shock a man with a heart condition who is screaming and asking to be released?
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What is OBEDIENCE
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conformity to the demands of an authority
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OBEDIENCE Milgrams study – Who are the roles of the subjects of Milgrams study
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In Milgram’s study, your task as a “teacher” is to read a list of word pairs to a “learner” whose task is to memorize the word pairs.
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OBEDIENCE Milgrams study – What happens to the learner if he makes a mistake
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You watched the learner be seated in an electric shock apparatus in an adjacent room, and now you are to punish him with a SHOCK EACH TIME HE MAKES A MISTAKE.
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OBEDIENCE Milgrams study – The device at which you are seated has 15 switches marked from 15 volts to 450 volts – why
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You must begin with 15 volts and move 15 volts higher for each additional mistake.
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OBEDIENCE Milgrams study – Why is the study controversial
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At 100 volts, the “learner” tells you he has a heart condition. Milgram tells you to continue. At 150 volts, the “learner” says he wants to quit. Milgram tells you to continue. At 300 volts, the “learner” screams and says he cannot give any more answers. Milgram tells you to continue.
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OBEDIENCE Milgrams study – What are the outcomes of the study
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65% obeyed up to the 450-volt level!! no one stopped at 300 volts. When “learners” were in the same room, only 40% fully obeyed, and when they were face-to-face, only 30% obeyed. When orders were given over the phone, only 22% obeyed. When “teachers” saw other “teachers” resist the authority and walk out on the experiment, only 10% continued to obey. Thus, a personal act of courage or moral fortitude by one or two members of a group may free others to disobey misguided or unjust authority.
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COERCION
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refers to being forced to change your beliefs or your behavior against your will.
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BRAINWASHING
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is the engineered or forced attitude change involving a “captive” audience. Complete control over the environment allows a degree of psychological manipulation that would be impossible in a normal setting. The target is made to feel completely helpless through physical and psychological abuse, such as by lack of sleep, humiliation, and isolation. When exhaustion, pressure, and fear become unbearable, change occurs as the person begins to abandon former beliefs.
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A CULT
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is a group that professes great devotion to some person and follows that person almost without question.
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Cult recruitment typically
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uses a powerful blend of guilt, manipulation, isolation, deception, fear, and escalating commitment to obtain new members.
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Once a member of the cult
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members are cut off from family and friends, as well as their former value systems and social structures. The cult can then control the flow and interpretation of information.
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Cult Conversion is complete
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once they come to think of themselves as group members rather than as individuals
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Transducers
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devices that convert one kind of energy into another
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Sensation
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a sensory impression, also the process of detecting physical energies with the sensory organs
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Perception
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The mental process of organizing sensation into meaningful patterns
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Psychophysics
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study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations they evoke in a human observer
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Absolute Threshold
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the minimum amount of physical energy necessary to produce a sensation
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Sensory adaptation
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a decrease in sensory response to an unchanging stimulus
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Sensory analysis
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separation of sensory information into important elements
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Perceptual features
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basic elements of a stimulus, such as lines, shapes edges or colors
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Sensory coding
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codes used by the sense organs to transmit information to the brain
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Difference threshold
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The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection to an observer. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference.
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Retina
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the light-sensitive layer of cells at the back of the eye
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Accommodation
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Changes in the shape of the lens of the eye
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Hyperopia
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Difficulty focusing on nearby objects (farsightedness)
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Myopia
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Difficulty focusing on distant objects (nearsightedness)
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Astigmatism
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Defects in the cornea, lens or eye that cause some areas of vision to be out of focus
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Presbyopia
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Farsightedness caused by aging
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Cones
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Visual receptors for colors and daylight visual acuity
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Rods
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Visual receptors for dim light that produce only black and white sensations
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Visual Acuity
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The sharpness of visual perception
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Peripheral (side) vision
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vision at the edges of the visual field
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Trichromatic theory
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theory of color vision based on the three cone types: red, green and blue
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Opponent-process theory
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theory of color vision based on three coding systems (red or green, yellow or blue, black or white)
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Color blindness
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a total inability to perceive colors
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Color weakness
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an inability to distinguish some colors
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Dark adaptation
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increased retinal sensitivity to light
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Hair cells
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receptor cells within the cochlea that transduce vibrations into nerve impulses
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Organ of Corti
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center part of the cochlea, containing hair cells, canals, and membranes
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Frequency theory
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Holds that tones up to 4000 hertz are converted to nerve impulses that match the frequency of each tone.
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Place theory
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Theory that higher and lower tones excite specific areas of the cochlea
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Conductive hearing loss
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poor transfer of sounds from the eardrum to the inner ear
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Sensorineural hearing loss
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loss of hearing caused by damage to the inner ear hair cells or auditory nerve
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Noise-induced hearing loss
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damage caused by exposing the hair cells to excessively loud sounds
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Olfaction
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the sense of smell
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Gustation
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the sense of taste
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Lock and key theory of olfaction
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holds that odors are related to the shapes of chemical molecules
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Taste bud
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the receptor organ for taste
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Somesthetic senses
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sensations produced by the skin, muscles, joints, viscera, and organs of balance
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Skin senses
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the senses of touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold
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Kinesthetic senses
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the senses of body movement and positioning
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Vestibular senses
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the senses of balance, gravity and acceleration
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Warning system
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pain based on large nerve fibers; warns that bodily damage may be occuring
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Reminding system
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pain based on small nerve fibers; reminds the brain that the body has been injured
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Gate control theory
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proposes that pain messages pass through neural "gates" in the spinal cord
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Sensory conflict theory
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Explains motion sickness as the result of a mismatch among information from vision, the vestibular system and kinesthesis
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Perceptual construction
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a mental model of external events
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Illusion
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a misleading or misconstructed perception
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Hallucination
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an imaginary sensation - such as seeing, hearing, or smelling something that does not exist in the external world.
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Reality testing
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obtaining additional information to check on the accuracy of perceptions
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Bottom up Processing
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organizing perceptions by beginning with low level features
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Top-down processing
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applying higher-level knowledge to rapidly organize sensory information into a meaningful perception
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Figure-ground organization
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organizing a perception so that part of a stimulus appears to stand out as an object (figure) against a less prominent background (ground)
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Perceptual Hypothesis
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an initial guess regarding how to organize (perceive) a stimulus pattern
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Size constancy
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the perceived size of an object remains constant, despite changes in its retinal image
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Shape constancy
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the perceived shape of an object is unaffected by changes in its retinal image.
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Brightness constancy
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the apparent or relative brightness of objects remains the same as long as they are illuminated by the same amount of light
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Selective attention
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giving priority to a particular incoming sensory message
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Inattentional blindness
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a failure to notice a stimulus because attention is focused elsewhere
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Depth perception
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the ability to see three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distances
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Depth cues
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features of the environment and messages from the body that supply information about distance and space
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Binocular depth cues
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perceptual features that impart information about distance and three-dimensional space which require two eyes.
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Monocular depth cues
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perceptual features that impart information about distance and three dimensional space which require just one eye
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Stereoscopic vision
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perception of space and depth due to the fact that the eyes receive different images
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Pictorial depth cues
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Monocular depth cues found in paintings, drawings, and photographs that impart information about space, depth and distance
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Apparent-distance hypothesis
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an explanation of the moon illusion stating that the horizon seems more distant that the night sky
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Perceptual expectancy or set
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a readiness to perceive in a particular manner, induced by strong expectations
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Perceptual learning
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changes in perception that can be attributed to prior experience; a result of changes I how the brain processes sensory information
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Perceptual habits
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ingrained patterns of organization and attention that affect our daily experience
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Miller-Lyer illusion
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two equal-length lines tipped widths inward or outward pointing V's appear to be of different lengths
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Extrasensory perception
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the purported ability to perceive events in ways that cannot be explained by known capacities of the sensory organs
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Psi phenomena
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events that seem to lie outside the realm of accepted scientific laws
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Run of luck
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a statistically unusual outcome (as in getting five heads in a row when flipping a coin) that could still occur by chance alone
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Habituation
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a decrease in perceptual response to a repeated stimulus
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Dishabituation
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a reversal of habituation
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how do sensory systems function
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the senses act as selective data reduction systems in the order to prevent the brain from being overwhelmed by sensory input and begins with transduction in a receptor organ
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how does the visual system function
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the eye is a visual system, with the rods and cones as photoreceptors in the retina of the eye. the rods specialize in peripheral vision, night vision, seeing black and white and detecting movement. the cones specialize in color vision, acuity and daylight vision
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What are the mechanisms of hearing?
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soundwaves are transduced by the eardrum, auditory ossicles, oval window, cochlea and ultimately the hair cells
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How do the chemical senses operate?
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olfaction and gustation are chemical senses that respond to airborne or liquefied molecules
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What are the somesthetic senses?
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include skin senses (touch, pressure, pain, cold and hot), vestibular (balance, gravity and acceleration) senses and kinesthetic (muscle and joint movement and positioning) senses
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How are perceptions constructed?
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perception is an active process of constructing sensations into a meaningful mental representation of the world
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Perceptions are based on
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simultaneous bottom-up and top-down processing. Complete percepts are assembled out of small sensory features in bottom-up fashion guided by preexisting knowledge applied "top-down" to organize features into a meaningful whole
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These Gestalt principles help organize sensations
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nearness, similarity, continuity closure, contiguity and common region
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Are we more aware of some sensations more than others?
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Incoming sensations are affected by selective attention, a brain based process that allows some sensory inputs to be selected for further processing while others are ignored.
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How is it possible to see depth and judge distance?
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depth perception depends on binocular cues of retinal disparity and convergence, as well as the monocular cue of accommodation
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How is perception altered by expectations, motive, emotions and learning?
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suggestion, motives, emotions, attention and prior experience combine to create perceptual sets or expectancies
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Is extrasensory perception possible?
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research in parapsychology remains controversial. the bulk of the evidence is against the existence of ESP.
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How can I learn to perceive events more accurately?
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Perceptual accuracy is enhanced by reality testing, dishabituation and conscious efforts to pay attention. being aware of perceptual sets and how motives and emotions influence our perceptions is also helpful
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