Psychology Test 3 Important Terms And Concepts

Front 1

learning

Back 1

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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associative learning

Back 2

learning that concern events (a response and its consequences in operant conditioning)occur together

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repondent behavior

Back 3

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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operant conditioning

Back 4

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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operant behavior

Back 5

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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law of effect

Back 6

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely

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operant chamber

Back 7

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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shaping

Back 8

an operant conditioning procedure in which enforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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reinforcer

Back 9

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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positive reinforcement

Back 10

increasing behavior by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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negative reinforcement

Back 11

increasing behavior by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment)

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primary reinforcer

Back 12

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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conditioned reinforcer

Back 13

a stimulus that gains it's reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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continuous reinforcement

Back 14

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Back 15

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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fixed-ratio schedule

Back 16

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

Back 17

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

Back 18

in operant conditioning a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

Back 19

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

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punishment

Back 20

an event that decreases the behavior it follows

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cognitive map

Back 21

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned the cognitive map of it.

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latent learning

Back 22

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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observational learning

Back 23

learning by observing others

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modeling

Back 24

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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mirror neurons

Back 25

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

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prosocial behavior

Back 26

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

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gestalt

Back 27

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

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figure-ground

Back 28

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

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grouping

Back 29

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

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depth perception

Back 30

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

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visual cliff

Back 31

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

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binocular cues

Back 32

depth cues such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

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retinal disparity

Back 33

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the subject

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monocular cues

Back 34

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

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perceptual constancy

Back 35

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

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color constancy

Back 36

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illuminating alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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audition

Back 37

the sense or act of hearing

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frequency

Back 38

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

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pitch

Back 39

a tone's experience highness or lowness; depends on frequency

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middle ear

Back 40

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containg three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

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cochlea

Back 41

a coiled, bony, fluid filled tube in the middle ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

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inner ear

Back 42

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular

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sensory interaction

Back 43

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

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dual processing

Back 44

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

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selective attention

Back 45

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

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inattentional blindness

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failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

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change blindness

Back 47

failing to notice changes in the environment

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circadian rhythm

Back 48

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle

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REM sleep

Back 49

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

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alpha waves

Back 50

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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sleep

Back 51

periodic, natural loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

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hallucinations

Back 52

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

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delta waves

Back 53

the large, slow brain waves association with deep sleep

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insomnia

Back 54

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

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narcolepsy

Back 55

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inappropriate times

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sleep apnea

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a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

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dream

Back 57

a sequence of images, emotions, and thought's passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

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hypnosis

Back 58

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

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posthypnotic suggestion

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a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

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dissociation

Back 60

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

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psychoactive drug

Back 61

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

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tolerance

Back 62

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

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withdrawl

Back 63

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

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psychological dependence

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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

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depressants

Back 65

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

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barbiturates

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drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

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opiates

Back 67

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroine; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

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stimulants

Back 68

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and the even more powerful cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

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amphetamines

Back 69

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

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methamphetamine

Back 70

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

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hallucinogens

Back 71

psychedlic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

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LSD

Back 72

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

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near-death experience

Back 73

an altered state of conscious reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest) often similar to drug-inducing hallucinations

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THC

Back 74

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

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associative learning

Back 75

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

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classical conditioning

Back 76

a type of learning in which one learns to link tow or more stimuli and anticipated events

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

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neutral stimulus (NS)

Back 78

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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unconditioned response (UR)

Back 79

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

Back 80

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically - triggers a response

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conditioned response (CR)

Back 81

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 82

in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

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acquisition

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

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higher-order conditioning

Back 84

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

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extinction

Back 85

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

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spontaneous recovery

Back 86

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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generalization

Back 87

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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discrimination

Back 88

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus